General principles

The drainage retinotomy is made after as complete a removal as possible of periretinal membranes, and should not be created in an area with residual membranes or traction. The drainage retinotomy is most easily created with endodiathermy.³ Taking care not to close large vessels, the unimanual, bipolar endodiathermy probe is set on a continuous mode and held against the retina in the selected area. A necrotic retinal hole with a well-marked white edge is usually produced. The advantages of creating the retinotomy with diathermy are: (1) complete hemostasis of the retinal blood vessels; and (2) whitening of the edge of the hole, which allows easy identification of the retinotomy when flat against the retinal pigment epithelium for laser treatment. If the diathermy probe does not perforate the necrotic area, the central necrotic area is perforated with a sharp blade, or by suction with the blunt tip of the vacuum needle.

Surgical technique in conjunction with perfluorocarbon liquid (PFCL)

The preferred technique for retinal reattachment is to use PFCL. PFCL, heavier than water or saline, can be used to reattach the retina from posteriorly to anteriorly.⁴ In addition, PFCL can fixate and stabilize the posterior retina, thereby facilitating removal of peripheral vitreous and membranes.⁵ A peripheral retinal break is necessary to allow egress of subretinal fluid when PFCL is injected over the posterior pole. A pre-existing retinal break is usually present, but if the break is not located anteriorly enough, subretinal fluid may become loculated beneath peripheral retina anterior to the anterior-most retinal break (Fig. 108.1A,B). Anterior subretinal fluid can usually be drained through posteriorly located retinal breaks during PFCL–air exchange. However, most surgeons prefer to do laser treatment through PFCL rather than air, so it is desirable to flatten the retina with PFCL. If anteriorly loculated subretinal fluid is present, one of several approaches can be taken to remove it. With PFCL filling the eye to just posterior to the most anteriorly located retinal break, a partial fluid–air exchange can be done to remove the subretinal fluid through the break. Then, if the desire is to do laser treatment throughout the PFCL, additional PFCL is injected to bring the level anteriorly; anterior air can then be replaced with infusion fluid in order to have a clear view. There is a risk of corneal striate keratopathy or pupillary constriction associated with the air in the aphakic eye that can reduce visualization and interfere with laser treatment and subsequent fluid–air exchange. In the phakic eye, there is the possibility of posterior subcapsular lens opacity induced by the air that could interfere with visualization.

Fig. 108.1 Retinal reattachment using perfluorocarbon liquid (PFCL). Drainage retinotomy to allow egress of anteriorly loculated subretinal fluid. (A) Detached retina with mid-peripheral retinal break. PFCL is injected over the posterior pole and subretinal fluid egresses through the retinal break (arrow). (B) Retinal break closed by PFCL. Subretinal fluid loculated beneath anterior retina is unable to escape subretinal space. (C) Anterior drainage retinotomy over anterior scleral buckle allows egress of subretinal fluid and retinal flattening as more PFCL is injected.

An alternative approach that is less time-consuming and more likely to maintain good visualization is to create an anterior drainage retinotomy with endodiathermy in the area where subretinal fluid is loculated in order to allow egress of the fluid into the vitreous cavity (Fig. 108.1C). If a scleral buckle is not present and will not be used, the retinotomy can be made just posterior to the ora serrata. If a scleral buckle is present, the retinotomy should be made in an area of retina supported by the buckle rather than anterior to the scleral buckle. After the drainage retinotomy is created, PFCL is injected to reattach the retina. If the retinotomy is made in an area under traction, there is a risk that the PFCL could go through the retinal break and course beneath the retina; however, if no traction is present, the level of the PFCL can be safely brought anterior to the break to allow laser treatment. The PFCL is usually removed by performing a PFCL–air exchange. Alternatively, a direct PFCL–silicone oil exchange can be done. It is preferable to drain any residual subretinal fluid, if present, through the anterior-most retinal break or retinotomy during the early portion of the exchange. This will prevent trapping of subretinal fluid that can be forced posteriorly as the eye is filled with air or silicone oil.

Surgical technique without PFCL

Fluid–air exchange was the most commonly used technique to reattach the retina during vitrectomy before introduction of PFCL. In the absence of a posterior retinal break for internal drainage of subretinal fluid, a posterior drainage retinotomy was usually done. The technique was to make a posterior drainage retinotomy with diathermy, taking care to make it in a superior quadrant at least 1.5 disc diameters from the optic nerve and avoiding the macula and large blood vessels in order to avoid complications. The retina was reattached by suctioning subretinal fluid through the retinotomy while the eye was filled with air supplied by a continuous infusion air pump (Fig. 108.2A). However, posterior drainage retinotomy can be associated with significant complications, including hemorrhage, fibrosis with traction, choroidal neovascularization (CNV), and visual field loss.⁶ In most instances, a peripheral drainage retinotomy can be used instead of a posterior retinotomy. Although the same complications can occur in the periphery, peripheral complications are usually less visually significant than posterior complications.

Fig. 108.2 (A) Fluid–air exchange through posterior drainage retinotomy. Silicone-tip cannula attached to variable suction through the vitrectomy console is placed into or immediately anterior to the retinotomy and the subretinal fluid is aspirated as the eye fills with air from the continuous infusion air pump. After retina is attached and retinotomy is flat against retinal pigment epithelium, retinotomy treated with laser endophotocoagulation. (B) Fluid–air exchange through peripheral drainage retinotomy. A 6 mm flexible silicone tube on cannula inserted through peripheral retinotomy toward posterior retina. Subretinal fluid aspirated during fluid–air exchange (lower arrow). Level of fluid in vitreous cavity is below level of retinotomy and retina is flat over proximal portion of subretinal cannula.

Fluid–air exchange can be done through a peripheral break or drainage retinotomy. A needle with an attached fixed-length silicone tube can be used for drainage in the periphery. One available needle has a 6 mm flexible silicone tube that is longer and more flexible than the silicone tube on standard silicone-tip needles (Beaver Visitec International Inc., Waltham, MA). The silicone tip can be inserted through a retinotomy for drainage, and the extra length allows drainage significantly posterior to the level of the retinotomy (Fig. 108.2B).

The peripheral drainage retinotomy should be created in an area most accessible to the drainage instrument. The best location is in the peripheral retina posterior to either the temporal or nasal sclerotomy. This location allows direct access of the soft silicone tube of the silicone-tipped needle to the drainage retinotomy and points the silicone tube, when inserted into the retinotomy, toward the posterior pole. If an encircling scleral buckle is present, the drainage retinotomy should not be made immediately posterior to the scleral buckle because, as the retina flattens, the retinotomy will become obscured by the buckle. It is better to make the retinotomy over the posterior portion of the buckle, where it can be observed throughout the exchange. As the retina flattens, the soft silicone tube will follow the contour of the posterior edge of the buckle and drain posterior subretinal fluid. If the retina is adherent to the scleral buckle, the drainage retinotomy should be created posteriorly enough so that the shaft of the drainage cannula will clear the crest of the scleral buckle during drainage.

For fluid–air exchange through a drainage retinotomy, intraocular air pressure is usually set at approximately 30 mmHg. Because of the peripheral location of the drainage retinotomy, a wide angle contact or noncontact viewing system or prism contact lens will improve visualization.⁷ Before air is insufflated, fluid–fluid exchange (internal drainage of fluid through a retinal break or retinotomy in a fluid-filled eye) will sometimes partially flatten the retina. Air is then insufflated and the air bubble is enlarged to fill the anterior vitreous cavity.

In an eye that is partially filled with air, the view is minimized, and it is necessary to refocus the operating microscope on the drainage retinotomy. The silicone tube is inserted through the drainage retinotomy, and low suction is applied to aspirate subretinal fluid.⁸ If the tip is not obstructed, subretinal fluid will be removed as the eye fills with air. The retina may not flatten initially because fluid from the vitreous cavity often goes through retinal breaks or through the retinotomy into the subretinal space. When the air reaches the level of the drainage retinotomy, the orifice is obstructed by the air, and no further vitreous fluid can go through the retinotomy into the subretinal space as suction is applied. The retina will flatten unless the tip of the silicone tube is obstructed. Slightly withdrawing the tube will usually initiate further drainage of subretinal fluid if the cannula obstructs. It is rare to aspirate and incarcerate retina into the silicone tip during this maneuver. If difficulty is encountered in the initial part of the exchange and fluid cannot be aspirated while the silicone tube is in the subretinal space, the tube is withdrawn from the subretinal space and aspiration is applied in the vitreous cavity just anterior to the retinotomy. When the air level meets the drainage retinotomy, the silicone tip is gently slipped obliquely into the subretinal space, and aspiration is once more applied. Care must be taken not to push the needle tip forcibly against the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) because choroidal hemorrhage may occur. When the retina flattens posteriorly over the silicone tube, it is slowly withdrawn from the subretinal space while gently aspirating subretinal fluid. At this point all or most of the subretinal fluid has been removed.

Vitreous cavity fluid can be aspirated over the optic nerve to complete the fluid–air exchange. Residual fluid is removed by “dipping” the silicone tip into the fluid meniscus over the optic nerve. A bright reflex disappears as the needle tip enters the fluid meniscus; this reflex reappears as the fluid level drops below the needle tip during aspiration. The dipping maneuver is repeated until all of the fluid is removed. Fluid tends to accumulate posteriorly in the vitreous cavity, so the dipping procedure over the optic disc is repeated after several minutes. When no fluid remains, the margins of the drainage retinotomy are treated with laser endophotocoagulation. Usually one confluent row of laser burns surrounding the margins of the retinotomy is adequate for adhesion.

Drainage during fluid–silicone oil exchange is similar to that during fluid–air exchange. For fluid–silicone oil exchange, 1000 cSt oil is easier to use than 5000 cSt oil. The 1000 cSt silicone oil can be pumped through either a 20-gauge or 23-gauge infusion cannula. It is necessary to use a fluted needle to remove the intraocular fluid. A vacuum needle cannot be used because it will collapse the eye during the silicone oil infusion. The silicone oil infusion forces the fluid out of the eye through the fluted needle. The vitreous cavity is filled with silicone oil as completely as possible before the subretinal space is entered. Most of the subretinal fluid can be removed at the orifice of the peripheral retinotomy, and less subretinal penetration by the silicone cannula is necessary compared with that necessary for fluid–air exchange. By repeatedly removing fluid at the retinotomy, then going back and using the dipping maneuver over the optic disc, one can remove most of the subretinal fluid. The silicone tube can be inserted posteriorly through the retinotomy more easily under silicone oil than under air because the silicone oil exerts much less force on the retina than air.

Complications

Intraoperative complications are hemorrhage from the retina or the choroid or enlargement of the retinotomy. By producing the retinotomy with diathermy and by avoiding larger vessels, retinal hemorrhages can usually be avoided. Incarceration of retina beyond the diathermized edge of the retinotomy with the drainage needle tip can sometimes lead to hemorrhage. Hemostasis with diathermy should be obtained as soon as possible.

Choroidal hemorrhage may result from impact of the instruments on the choroid. If the silicone tube does not easily slip into the subretinal space, it should not be forced. The longer the silicone tubing, the more flexible the tube, so the fixed silicone-tipped needles with longer tubing exert less pressure on the choroid than needles with shorter tubing.

When the silicone tube is retracted from beneath reattached retina, a “track” of damaged RPE often results. This is probably caused by the pressure of the air bubble on the retina, which pushes the silicone tube against the retinal pigment epithelium. Because of the potential for visually significant RPE damage, the silicone tube should not be extended into the macular area.

Enlargement of the retinotomy may follow excessive diathermy. The area of diathermy becomes necrotic, and if a wide area is treated with diathermy, the retinotomy may enlarge during fluid–air exchange. Enlargement can also occur due to incarceration of the retina at the edge of the retinotomy in the drainage needle tip during fluid-air exchange.

Postoperative complications of the drainage retinotomy are few. McDonald et al.⁶ first described cellular proliferation and CNV from drainage retinotomies. Richards and Maberley⁹ found that subretinal neovascularization was associated with the retinotomy site in 1% of 287 cases and focal PVR was associated with the retinotomy site in 2%. Retinal detachment from the retinotomy site is extremely rare. The retinotomy site may even remain attached if the rest of the retina detaches postoperatively. Cellular proliferation from the retinotomy site may lead to periretinal proliferation. In gas-filled eyes, the proliferation usually remains in the local area of the retinotomy site and rarely leads to complications. In silicone-oil-filled eyes, the proliferation may be more extensive and lead to tractional complications. CNV probably results from damage to the underlying choroid and RPE.

An extensive visual field defect may result from a large retinotomy too close to the optic disc or macula. Bourke et al.¹⁰ found visual field defects within 30° of fixation in 12 of 14 eyes with drainage retinotomies. Visual field defects were found in all eyes in which the retinotomy was created within 5 disc diameters of fixation. The researchers recommended that retinotomies be placed more than 5 disc diameters from the fovea and in the superotemporal quadrant to minimize visual field loss.

Subretinal foreign body

A rare indication for retinotomy is removal of a subretinal foreign body. A subretinal foreign body may result from perforation of the retina from the vitreal side or, rarely, from perforation of the sclera at an oblique angle, with lodging of the foreign body between the retina and the choroid. If the foreign body is nonmobile and anteriorly located, a posterior external extraction through the sclera and the choroid may work quite well. If the foreign body is located posteriorly, or if it is mobile beneath a detached retina, a posterior external extraction is quite difficult. In the latter case, a vitrectomy with retinotomy may be the best approach. If the retina is not detached, the foreign body will usually lie at or near the retinal perforation site. After the vitrectomy, laser endophotocoagulation is applied to surround the foreign body. The retina overlying the foreign body is treated with diathermy, after which a membrane pick is used to remove retina, fibrin, or other material from the surface of the foreign body. An inflammatory capsule is often present around the foreign body, and this should be opened with the membrane pick. The foreign body can then be grasped and removed with foreign-body forceps or a rare-earth magnet.

If the retina is detached, the foreign body may be mobile. In this case, after vitrectomy, a retinotomy is made with endodiathermy. The retinotomy is made in an area where forceps or the rare-earth magnet will have access to the foreign body. The posterior pole or areas of fibrous proliferation should be avoided when the retinotomy is made. It is often possible to manipulate a subretinal foreign body to the area of the retinotomy before the foreign body is grasped. Joondeph and Flynn¹¹ described moving the foreign body to the retinotomy site with the soft flexible tip of the cannulated extrusion needle. The foreign body is then grasped and pulled into the vitreous cavity through the retinotomy.

Removal of subretinal PFCL

An occasional need for retinotomy is the removal of subretinal PFCL. This indication may arise intraoperatively or postoperatively, subsequent to vitrectomy with use of PFCL. Insufficient release of retinal traction or misdirected injection of preretinal PFCL into a retinal break can result in intraoperative subretinal PFCL. Postoperative retention of subretinal PFCL occurs in up to 12% of cases and is most often associated with large peripheral retinectomies.¹²

Small extramacular bubbles of subretinal PFCL are usually visually insignificant, and should not be removed unless they show migration toward the subfoveal region. This complication is more likely to occur with bubbles trapped subretinally superior to the macula, and in the presence of epiretinal membranes. If the PFCL bubble is located subfoveally, or is found migrating in that direction, repeat vitrectomy with small retinotomy is indicated, given PFCL’s known toxicity to the photoreceptors and pigment epithelium.¹² Subretinal PFCL has been found to produce a dense scotoma on microperimetry.¹³ Once PFCL is removed, the affected retina tends to regain partial function; the degree of recovery is probably dependent on the duration of its subretinal presence. Large amounts of subretinal PFCL, either intra- or postoperatively, should be removed regardless of location. If the retina is attached, a PFCL bubble can be removed through a small retinotomy given its high fluidity.^14–17 Active suction with a 33G subretinal cannula, or smaller, can be used. Light laser photocoagulation of the retinotomy may not be needed, although it may be beneficial if the retina has been recently detached.

Retinal or subretinal mass

Pars plana vitrectomy and retinectomy were used to remove a retinal vasoproliferative tumor, thereby providing a specimen for histopathologic diagnosis and treatment for recurrent hemorrhages and exudation.¹⁸ Gaudric et al. reported retinectomy to treat nine eyes with retinal capillary hemangiomas in von Hippel–Landau disease.¹⁹

Removal of a subretinal mass is an uncommon indication for retinotomy, although a retinotomy may be used for excision of a subretinal mass such as a disciform scar.^20,21 The surgical results of disciform scar removal have been disappointing; more recently, surgery has been directed at removal of choroidal neovascular membranes (see Chapter 119, Surgical management of choroidal neovascularization and subretinal hemorrhage), an earlier form of the disease, or macular translocation away from the area of neovascularization or scar (see Chapter 120, Macular translocation). Vitrectomy removal or biopsy of choroidal melanomas has been popularized in some centers,^22,23 Karkhaneh et al.²⁴ reported the outcome on 20 cases followed for 24–132 months (mean, 89.55 months; SD±38.4 months). Only one patient had died of metastasis (liver) and 75% of the eyes were stable, with no evidence of tumor or severe complications. Harris et al. described successfully using extensive retinectomy to remove a subretinal abscess due to Klebsiella.²⁵

Retinotomies to obtain abnormal retinal tissue: retinal biopsy

Retinal and choroidal biopsies use retinectomies and choroidectomies to obtain tissue for pathologic diagnosis in difficult diagnostic problems, such as retinitis, uveitis, and neoplastic diseases. (This topic is covered in Chapter 124, Vitreous, retinal, and choroidal biopsy.)

Retinectomy for treatment of intractable glaucoma

Retinectomy has been advocated for treatment of intractable glaucoma. Kirchhof²⁶ and Joussen et al.²⁷ described vitrectomy and anterior retinectomy to utilize the pressure-lowering effect of retinectomy to treat glaucomas resistant to other forms of therapy. Joussen et al. reviewed 44 eyes treated with retinectomy. Patients included: 12 with neovascular glaucoma; three with infantile and juvenile glaucoma; 13 with aphakic glaucoma; seven with glaucoma secondary to trauma; seven with glaucoma due to uveitis, and two with Ehlers–Danlos syndrome. With at least 5 years’ follow-up, 52.3% had long-term control of intraocular pressure without complications. Among the remaining eyes, complications were frequent, with a high rate of PVR, hypotony, and phthisis bulbi. Eyes with neovascular glaucoma due to central retinal vein occlusion and eyes with uveitis had a particularly poor prognosis.

General surgical principles and techniques

The relaxing retinectomy can be performed after either 20G or smaller-gauge vitrectomy. Newer instrumentation and the ability to inject silicone oil into eyes using 23G technology makes the use of smaller-gauge technology possible.³⁵ The retinectomy should only be performed after complete membrane removal. If the retina is cut or excised before complete membrane removal, further membrane removal will be more difficult and may result in unnecessarily large retinal defects or residual membranes that may lead to redetachment of the retina. Larger peripheral retinectomies are less functionally significant than are smaller posterior retinectomies. Although a large peripheral retinectomy may be more difficult to manage, the greater preservation of retinal function obtained is usually worthwhile. Circumferential relaxing retinectomies are usually preferred to radial retinectomies. In the face of circumferential traction, a radial retinectomy that adequately relieves traction may extend too far posteriorly into the central retina.

It is useful to be able to see the full extent of the retina to be cut or excised during creation of a retinectomy. With full visualization, it is easier to assess the best location and the necessary extent of the retinectomy. A wide angle viewing system is ideal for visualization of the retina during this maneuver. Either a contact or noncontact system can be used. Use of a wide angle system may reduce the time necessary to do the procedure, improve the ability to apply laser photocoagulation, and reduce the need for scleral depression.³⁶ Before a relaxing retinectomy is created, diathermy should be applied to the entire area to be cut (Fig. 108.3A). Blood vessels in the area should be occluded. The retina can be cut with scissors or a vitrectomy instrument. Scissors will make a more precise, controlled cut, whereas larger areas of retina are more easily excised with the vitrectomy instrument. For folded retina, sequential cutting and reapplication of diathermy, as described later for release of retinal incarceration, is the preferred method. PFCL may be necessary to stabilize the retina during retinectomy.⁵ As a general principle, the retinectomy should extend into normal retina on each end of the area of contraction. With shorter retinectomies, the extension into normal retina needs to be only a few degrees in length. With very large retinectomies, extension into the normal retina may need to be up to 30°. If the normal retina is attached, care must be taken not to damage the choroid during retinectomy, because bleeding may occur. After diathermy, the retina should be gently pulled away from the pigment epithelium by the scissors tips or a pick before cutting.

Fig. 108.3 Persistent retinal contraction and shortening after membrane removal. (A) Diathermy applied heavily to vessels and lightly to the remainder of the retina in the area of proposed retinotomy. (B) After retinotomy, the retinal defect is greatest centrally and least at the ends. Because of limited shortening, no radial relaxation is necessary.

Attention should be paid to the pattern of retinal contraction in designing a prospective retinectomy. After a circumferential relaxing retinectomy is made parallel to the equator, following retinal reattachment the defect created will have an oval configuration (Fig. 108.3B). Relaxation is greatest in the central area where the retinal defect spreads apart the most and least at each end of the retinectomy. For a smaller retinectomy, without extensive traction toward the ends, a simple circumferential cut is usually adequate. For larger retinectomies, especially those with traction toward the ends, the surgical principle of the Z-plasty is useful. By angling the cut anteriorly to the ora serrata or sometimes the pars plana epithelium oblique to the circumferential direction of the relaxing retinectomy, one can relieve residual traction at the ends of the retinectomy (Fig. 108.4).³⁰ The combination of circumferential retinectomy to relieve anteroposterior shortening and oblique extension at each end into normal retina to relieve circumferential shortening further achieves the greatest retinal relaxation in the face of extensive retinal shortening.

Fig. 108.4 Extensive retinal shortening persists after membrane removal. (A) Arrows indicate both circumferential and radial retinal shortening. Diathermy is applied to the retina and vessels in the proposed retinotomy site. The retinotomy is extended obliquely anteriorly into the uninvolved retina to maximize relaxation. (B) Retina flat following fluid–silicone exchange. The anterior flap of the functionless retina is excised, which reduces the likelihood of recurrent traction in the area of retinotomy. Note the bare retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) anterior to the retinotomy.

The anterior flap of the retinectomy is avascular and nonfunctional. We recommend excision of the retina anterior to a large retinectomy so that fibrin and cellular proliferation do not rejoin the cut edges of the retina or proliferation from the anterior flap does not produce traction on the ciliary body. Excision of the anterior flap is especially important at the ends of the circumferential retinectomy. Failure to extend the retinectomy into normal retina or to excise the anterior flap may allow recurrent proliferation and contraction to redetach the retina (Fig. 108.5).

Fig. 108.5 (A) Eye in which retinotomy is not extended anteriorly. Arrows indicate forces of recurrent traction, which redetach retina at the ends of the retinotomy. (B) Retinal redetachment around inadequate retinotomy. A larger, more extensive retinotomy is less likely to detach.

If a circumferential retinectomy extends more than 270°, it is usually best to extend it to 360°. Similarly, if two large retinectomies are separated by a small isthmus of intact retina, it is usually best to cut the intact retina to join the two areas of retinectomy. These small areas of intact retina are of little functional use and may become areas of contraction that elevate the edges of the retinectomy.

Retinal incarceration in traumatic or surgical wounds

A retinectomy is sometimes necessary for relief of traction, resulting from traumatic scleral perforation with retinal incarceration.^30,37 Retinal incarceration may result from several mechanisms. Focal (limited) retinal incarceration occurs when local retina is forced or drawn into a penetrating wound. Retina may actually be acutely extruded at the time of injury as vitreous is extruded, or the fibrosis of healing after a penetrating injury may progressively draw retina towards the injury site. In both situations, the final result is overall shortening of the retina with folds radiating toward the central wound (Fig. 108.6). Alternatively, retina may be incarcerated in a sclerotomy site after drainage of subretinal fluid during retinal detachment surgery. Another mechanism of retinal incarceration involves incarceration of retina distant from the penetrating wound (Fig. 108.7). This results from acute extrusion of vitreous out of the wound associated with collapse of the eye during injury. Retina distant from the wound attached to the vitreous is pulled into the wound as the vitreous is extruded. The most extreme example of the latter mechanism is total extrusion of the vitreous through a wound with complete avulsion of the anterior retinal insertion. The retina is found in a funnel configuration extending from the optic nerve connection posteriorly to the wound anteriorly. Incarceration of the retina in an anterior wound such as a cataract surgery wound may be associated with a massive suprachoroidal hemorrhage in which the vitreous and retina are extruded through the wound by the enlarging choroidal detachment. As the hemorrhage resolves or is drained, the retina is left incarcerated in the wound.

Fig. 108.6 Release of focal retinal incarceration. (A) Superior traumatic penetrating injury with retinal incarceration and retinal detachment with peripheral dialysis. (B) Endodiathermy applied to retina surrounding incarceration. The retina is cut in layers and diathermy is reapplied as deeper retina is uncovered. The retina is cut 360° around the incarceration site. (C) Postoperative appearance. The retinotomy is enlarged after flattening of retina. Laser endophotocoagulation is applied to the edges of the retinotomy.

Fig. 108.7 Distant retinal incarceration. (A) Torn retina incarcerated in wound on the opposite side of the eye. (B) After excision of the retina from the wound, the retina is flattened. RPE, area of bare retinal pigment epithelium after retinal reattachment. Note the scar at the previous incarceration site (S).

In limited incarcerations, the retina has a focal morning-glory configuration at the point of incarceration (Fig. 108.6A). Surrounding retina is usually detached with fixed folds radiating from the area of incarceration. The degree of retinal shortening and contraction is determined by the size of the scleral wound, the amount of retina incarcerated, and the degree and chronicity of fibrous proliferation at the incarceration site. A retinotomy should only be performed if contraction and folds from the incarceration site prevent retinal reattachment.

Surgical technique

Vitrectomy should be completed and hemorrhage and membranes within the vitreous and on the retinal surface should be removed before retinectomy is considered. If the retina is extruded into an anterior wound, it may be difficult to place the instruments through the pars plana in the normal position; the surgeon should be careful to avoid placement of the infusion cannula into the subretinal space. In a fresh wound, the retina may sometimes be teased out of the incarceration site with forceps or reposited by the injection of sodium hyaluronate. Injection of PFCL over retina posterior to the incarceration may pull retina out of the incarceration. A retinotomy is required if the retina cannot be dislodged from a fresh wound or if it is incarcerated in a fibrotic, older wound. Retina must also be cut if significant shortening and fixed folds persist after a complete vitrectomy and membrane peeling.

Initially, diathermy is applied to the retina at the margin of the incarceration to ensure that all blood vessels are closed (Fig. 108.6B). There may be large vessels within the incarceration site, so it is preferable to cut just peripheral to the incarceration site rather than directly into it. The retina is cut with the vertically cutting vitreoretinal scissors 360° around the incarceration site (Fig. 108.6B). Bullous retina posterior to the incarceration site can be flattened and stabilized with PFCL during the retinectomy.⁵ If PFCL is used, the retina posterior to the incarceration site should be free of membranes. There should be no open retinal breaks under traction in the area to be covered by the PFCL. The PFCL is injected over the posterior pole and the level of the PFCL brought just posterior to the incarceration.

The retina may be thickened, and parts of the retina may be hidden between folds, making hemostasis with diathermy difficult. It may be necessary to cut the retina in layers, reapplying diathermy as the untreated tissue is uncovered.³⁰ When the retina is circumcised around an area of incarceration, the defect in the retina will be larger than would initially appear (Fig. 108.6C). Therefore, the closer the cut is made to the area of incarceration, the smaller the potential defect will be. In areas where the retina is closely apposed to the RPE, there is risk of damage to the choroid by the scissors, with resultant hemorrhage. After diathermy, the scissors blade or a membrane pick can usually be placed tangentially through the necrotic retina into the subretinal space. The retina should be lifted away from the RPE before cutting. The retinal defect created by the retinectomy should be tamponaded with gas or silicone oil and treated with laser endophotocoagulation (Fig. 108.6C).

Management of distant retinal incarceration is a special problem. Very large defects are created when the retina is excised from the wound (Fig. 108.7). These eyes may require up to a 360° retinectomy to separate the retina from the wound. PFCLs may be useful in managing extensive distant retinal incarcerations. PFCL might be useful to stabilize the retina during the retinotomy, open the closed funnel of the retinal detachment and to reattach the resultant giant retinal tear (Fig. 108.8).^4,5

Fig. 108.8 Management of giant retinal tear or retinectomy with perfluorocarbon liquid (PFCL). (A) Folded-over giant tear with marked folding of the peripheral retina. PFCL injected over posterior pole after posterior epiretinal membrane removal. (B) Posterior retina reattached. Organized, folded edge of giant tear treated with diathermy, then excised with vitrectomy instrument. (C) Retina completely reattached with PFCL. “Drying” anterior edge of giant tear during initial phase of fluid–air exchange by applying suction with soft-tip needle beneath anterior edge of retina. (D) Continuing fluid–air exchange to remove residual PFCL. No retinal slippage has occurred.

Retinal shortening (contraction) because of PVR

Retinal shortening in PVR is divided into seven categories (Box 108.1). In the revised Retina Society Classification of PVR, contraction posterior to the equator was classified as posterior PVR, whereas contraction at the equator and anteriorly was classified as anterior PVR.³⁹ The first two categories, focal contraction and diffuse contraction, are similar; both result from contraction of epiretinal membranes and vary mainly in the extent of retinal involvement (see Chapter 107, Proliferative vitreoretinopathy, for further information on classification of PVR).

Circumferential contraction

Extensive circumferential contraction may occur because of marked contraction of membranes at the posterior aspect of the vitreous base. In the revised Retina Society Classification of PVR, circumferential contraction is a form of anterior PVR.³⁹ Coronal contraction of the posterior hyaloid pulls the retina centrally into a funnel shape, and circumferential contraction creates tight retinal folds that extend posteriorly in a radial fashion (Fig. 108.10A). Even with excision of the posterior hyaloid and stripping and sectioning of membranes, a ridge of equatorial retina may sometimes remain in a circular contracted state. It is usually visually apparent if circumferential contraction has not been adequately relieved by membrane peeling and sectioning. If dissection does not release traction, a circumferential retinectomy should be made just posterior to the area of contraction (usually the posterior aspect of the vitreous base) (Fig. 108.4). The relaxing retinectomy is best made with PFCL stabilizing the retina posterior to the area of contraction (Fig. 108.11). With the posterior retina held in place by the PFCL, the retinectomy is extended circumferentially into normal-appearing retina on each end of the retinectomy, and then extended anteriorly to the ora serrata or the ciliary body if the pars plana is involved with traction (Figs 108.4, 108.11). The retina anterior to the retinectomy should be excised with the vitrectomy instrument. Once all traction is released by the retinectomy, the PFCL can be brought anterior to the level of the retinectomy to reattach the remaining retina without fear of subretinal PFCL.

Fig. 108.10 Contraction of posterior aspect of vitreous base. (A) Retina pulled into funnel configuration. Circumferential contraction of posterior vitreous base with radial folds. (B) After vitrectomy, membrane removal, scleral buckle, and fluid–air exchange, air (A) courses subretinally through the retinal break. Dashed line indicates location of proposed retinotomy. (C) Circumferential retinotomy is performed under air and the retina flattens. Extend retinotomy into attached retina on each end of retinotomy.

Fig. 108.11 (A) Anterior proliferative vitreoretinopathy extends from 5 to 8 o’clock. The posterior retina is held in place by perfluorocarbon liquid (PFCL). Retinotomy with scissors anterior to the PFCL extends into unaffected retina at each end of the retinotomy. (B) The full extent of the retinectomy is now flattened by PFCL and is large because of excision of anterior flap. Laser endophotocoagulation is applied to the margin of retinectomy.

Alternatively, the need for a relaxing retinectomy at the posterior aspect of the vitreous base may be noted during injection of PFCL or after fluid–air exchange. The surgeon may notice persistent circumferential tenting of the retina or the air or PFCL may course subretinally through retinal breaks elevated by traction. It is best to try to determine if contraction has been adequately relieved before air or PFCL goes subretinally, as both situations further complicate surgery. If PFCL goes under the retina, it will be necessary to retrieve it with a fluted needle or suction cannula, often requiring folding the retina over in order to visualize the subretinal PFCL. If air has gone under the retina, the air may delineate most of the area of residual traction (Fig. 108.10B). It is important to extend the relaxing retinectomy well beyond the point that allows the retina to flatten because the surface tension of the air may overcome residual traction that might redetach the retina as the gas bubble resolves. Subretinal air will coalesce with air in the vitreous cavity when the retinectomy is made and the retina will reattach (Fig. 108.10C).

Intrinsic retinal contraction

Retinectomy for intrinsic retinal contraction is similar to retinectomy for other forms of contraction, but intrinsic retinal contraction is often only recognized after injection of PFCL or insufflation of air. If the area of intrinsic retinal contraction is in the peripheral retina, a circumferential retinectomy is made posterior to the area of contraction. With intrinsic retinal contraction, the area of involvement is often extensive, so the retinectomy may need to be quite large. The retinectomy should be extended circumferentially into normal retina at each end and anteriorly to the ora serrata.

Intrinsic retinal contraction involving the posterior retina is more difficult to manage. When there is annular contraction involving the posterior retina, if no subretinal membrane is found as a cause, a retinectomy is necessary to relieve traction. A circumferential retinectomy in the posterior pole is problematic because of loss of visual field. Several radial cuts in retina will sometimes adequately relieve the traction; however, these may extend too far posteriorly toward the optic nerve. Excision of a section of nasal retina may adequately relieve traction on the more visually significant temporal retina.

Extensive periretinal fibrous proliferation

Extensive periretinal fibrous proliferation may occur in eyes after trauma with extensive retinal contusion or necrosis. The retina becomes replaced by fibrous tissue with fibrous proliferation on the anterior and often the posterior surface of the retina. With long-standing PVR and chronic retinal detachment with severe fibrous proliferation, the retina may become very thin and atrophic in areas of fibrous proliferation, making membrane removal impossible. Perisilicone proliferation may involve widespread fibrous proliferation, especially at the margin of a previous retinectomy. The peripheral retina may become so encased in fibrous tissue that the tissue cannot be separated from the retina.

In all these instances, the dense, white fibrous tissue cannot be separated from the retina. The retina in these areas becomes nonfunctional and should be excised if it prevents retinal reattachment. These membranes are often quite contracted, causing marked folding and shortening of the retina. The involved areas may be vascularized, although sometimes they are avascular. Diathermy should be applied along the posterior edge of the area to be excised, and then excision is carried out with the vitreous cutting instrument in a technique similar to that described for diffuse retinal contraction (Fig. 108.9).

Prophylactic removal of anterior flap of horseshoe tears

One of the most common forms of retinectomy is the removal of the anterior flap of a horseshoe tear. These flaps always have strong vitreoretinal adhesions and the flap is removed because of the possibility of progressive traction on the edge of the tear by vitreous contraction in the postoperative period. Traction may lead to lifting of the retina away from the pigment epithelium and/or anterior extension of the horseshoe tear. The tear should be left in a rounded shape, which is more likely to withstand vitreous traction without experiencing extension or elevation. If present, the operculum of a retinal tear is also commonly excised as part of the necessary peripheral vitrectomy. Sometimes retinal vessels bridge the operculum or flap of the tear. Diathermy should be applied to the vessels prior to removal of the flap or operculum with the vitreous cutting instrument.

Contraction and fibrosis of flap of giant retinal tear

The posterior flap of most giant retinal breaks shows inward curling of the edge because of the normal contractility of the retina. With chronicity and the onset of PVR, this folding may become permanent and prevent reattachment of the edge of the flap (Fig. 108.14A). The inwardly folded retina may become fixed with proliferative membranes, and the edge may be thickened, fibrous, and taut. Even after removal of membranes, the edge may remain folded, requiring retinectomy to allow complete flattening of the flap of the giant break.

Fig. 108.14 (A) A 180° giant retinal tear with folded rolled edge, which prevents complete unfolding. The dashed line indicates the limit of the edge to be excised. (B) Retina relaxed and reattached.

There is often both anteroposterior shortening because of inward rolling of the edge of the break and circumferential shortening as a result of fibrous contraction. Membranes are removed on both the anterior and posterior surfaces of the retina. The flap is unfolded mechanically using two instruments. If the flap will not unfold, it is often best to excise the folded edge of the flap.⁴² Alternatively, a series of radial cuts may be placed approximately every 30° along the margin of the flap to allow unfolding.⁴² However, the irregular edge created by this series of cuts is more difficult to manage, and excision of the edge is the preferred approach (Fig. 108.14B).

After removal of posterior membranes, PFCL is injected over the posterior pole and the level is brought to a level posterior to the fibrotic edge of the giant tear (Fig. 108.8B).⁴ The PFCL fixes the retina and makes excision of the organized edge easier. Diathermy is applied to the edge of the flap throughout the extent to be excised. Excision is usually with the vitreous cutting instrument, being careful to apply low suction so that excessive retina is not excised. If radial cuts are to be made, diathermy is applied only locally in the area to be cut.

Inner-wall retinectomy for complications of congenital retinoschisis

Congenital retinoschisis can be complicated by combined schisis–traction retinal detachment, combined schisis–rhegmatogenous retinal detachment, vitreous hemorrhage, and obscuration of the macula by the overhanging inner wall of a schisis cavity. Ferrone et al. reported pars plana vitrectomy with excision of the inner wall of the peripheral schisis cavity in nine eyes with various complications of congenital retinoschisis.⁴⁴ The retina was attached postoperatively in eight of nine eyes; six had improvement in VA, and one had stabilization of VA. Two eyes had a decrease in VA. An alternate technique with posterior hyaloid dissection, a small retinotomy, fluid drainage with a 42-gauge cannula, laser photocoagulation and silicone oil injection was successful in one reported case.⁴⁵