Variants of Preexcitation

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Chapter 19 Variants of Preexcitation

Variants of Preexcitation (Atypical Bypass Tracts)

A working definition of an atypical bypass tract (BT) is a conduction pathway that bypasses all or part of the normal conduction system but is not a rapidly conducting pathway connecting atrium and ventricle near the mitral or tricuspid annulus. Thus, pathways that connect the atrium to the His bundle (HB), the atrioventricular node (AVN) to the His-Purkinje system (HPS) or the ventricle, or the HPS to the ventricle fit into this designation (Fig. 19-1).

“Mahaim Fibers”

In 1937, during pathological examination of the heart, Mahaim and Benatt identified islands of conducting tissue extending from the HB into the ventricular myocardium. These fibers were called Mahaim fibers or fasciculoventricular fibers.13 This description was subsequently expanded to include connections between the AVN and the ventricular myocardium (nodoventricular fibers). Later, it was recognized that BTs could arise from the AVN and insert into the right bundle branch (RB; nodofascicular fibers).2,3 This classification for Mahaim fibers persisted until evidence suggested that the anatomical substrate of tachycardias with characteristics previously attributed to nodoventricular and nodofascicular fibers is actually atrioventricular (AV) and atriofascicular BTs with decremental conduction properties (i.e., conduction slows at faster heart rates) (see Fig. 19-1). Although these BTs are sometimes collectively referred to as “Mahaim fibers,” the use of this term is discouraged because it is more illuminating to name the precise BT according to its connections. In this chapter, these BTs are referred to as atypical BTs to differentiate them from the more common (typical) rapidly conducting AV BTs that result in the Wolff-Parkinson-White (WPW) syndrome.4

Types of Atypical Bypass Tracts

Long Decrementally Conducting Atrioventricular and Atriofascicular Bypass Tracts

These BTs comprise the majority (80%) of atypical BTs; their atrial insertion site is in the right atrial (RA) free wall.6,7 These BTs tend (84%) to cross the tricuspid annulus in the lateral, anterolateral, or anterior region. They extend along the right ventricular (RV) free wall to the region where the moderator band usually inserts at the apical third of the RV free wall, inserting into the distal part of the RB (atriofascicular BT) or into the ventricular myocardium close to the RB (long decrementally conducting AV BT). These BTs are functionally similar to the normal AV junction, with an AVN-like structure leading to a His bundle (HB)–like structure. In essence, those BTs function as an auxiliary conduction system parallel to the normal conduction system (AVN–HPS). Similar to the normal AVN, these BTs demonstrate decremental conduction (related to the slow rate of recovery of excitability) and Wenckebach-type block in response to rapid atrial pacing and are sensitive to adenosine. The conduction delay in these BTs has been localized to the intraatrial portion of the BT (the AVN-like portion), whereas the interval from the inscription of the BT potential at the tricuspid annulus and the onset of ventricular activation (BT-V interval) remains constant.46,8,9

Short Decrementally Conducting Atrioventricular Bypass Tracts

These BTs are analogous to decrementally conducting concealed BTs responsible for the permanent form of junctional reciprocating tachycardia (PJRT; see Chap. 18) in that they bridge the AV rings and insert proximally into ventricular myocardium in close proximity to the AV annulus.7,10 These BTs primarily arise from the RA free wall, but can also arise from the posterior or septal region. Left-sided BTs with decremental conduction characteristics have rarely been described. Although these BTs demonstrate decremental conduction and Wenckebach-type block in response to rapid atrial pacing, they do not consistently appear to be responsive to adenosine, which suggests that their structure is not composed of AVN-like tissue.10

Nodoventricular and Nodofascicular Bypass Tracts

Nodoventricular BTs arise in the normal AVN and insert into ventricular myocardium near the AV junction.7 Nodofascicular BTs arise in the normal AVN and insert into the RB. These BTs are sensitive to adenosine, probably because of their AVN connection.5

Arrhythmias Associated with Atypical Bypass Tracts

Atypical BTs in patients with clinical arrhythmias have the following characteristics: (1) unidirectional (anterograde-only) conduction (with rare exceptions); (2) long conduction times; and (3) decremental conduction (i.e., cycle length [CL]-dependent slowing of conduction).

Atypical BTs comprise 3% to 5% of all BTs. The incidence is slightly higher (6%) in patients presenting with supraventricular tachycardia (SVT) with a left bundle branch block (LBBB) morphology.7 Multiple BTs occur in 10% of patients with atypical BTs. In some cases, a typical, rapidly conducting AV BT can mask the presence of an atypical BT, which only becomes apparent after ablation of the typical BT. Dual AVN pathways or multiple BTs occur in 40% of patients with atypical BTs. Atypical BTs can also be associated with Ebstein anomaly.

Electrocardiographic Features

Normal Sinus Rhythm

During normal sinus rhythm (NSR), the ECG shows normal QRS or minimal preexcitation in most patients with atypical BTs. Subtle preexcitation can be suspected by the absence of the normal septal forces (small q waves) in leads I, aVL, V5, and V6 and the presence of an rS complex in lead III in the setting of a narrow QRS.12 The degree of preexcitation depends on the relative conduction time over the AVN and BT. Maneuvers that prolong conduction over the AVN (e.g., atrial pacing, vagal maneuvers, or drugs) to a greater degree than BT conduction will increase the degree of preexcitation. Because atypical BTs exhibit decremental conduction, increasing the atrial pacing rate results in prolongation of the P-delta interval. In contrast, in the setting of typical rapidly conducting AV BTs, the P-delta interval remains relatively constant regardless of the degree of preexcitation; whereas prolonging the AVN conduction time results in more preexcitation. The P-delta interval remains constant or exhibits mild prolongation because conduction over the typical BT displays less decrement than does the AVN.5,7,1214

Electrophysiological Testing

Baseline Observations During Normal Sinus Rhythm

In the baseline state, minimal or no preexcitation can be present; thus, the His bundle–ventricular (HV) interval is normal or slightly short.

Atrial Pacing and Atrial Extrastimulation during Normal Sinus Rhythm

Progressively shorter atrial pacing CLs or atrial extrastimulus (AES) coupling intervals produce decremental conduction in both the atypical BT and, to a greater degree, the AVN (Fig. 19-3).12 Consequently, the atrial–His bundle (AH) interval increases, the QRS morphology gradually shifts to a more preexcited LBBB morphology, and the AV (A-delta) interval increases. However, the AV (A-delta) interval increases to a lesser degree than the AH interval. This is in contrast to the setting of typical rapidly conducting AV BTs, in which the AV (A-delta) interval remains constant despite prolongation of the AH interval and exaggeration of the degree of preexcitation, because the A-delta interval represents conduction time over the BT. Typical AV BTs maintain constant conduction time during different pacing rates and AES coupling intervals—that is, nondecremental conduction.5

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FIGURE 19-3 Effect of atrial extrastimulation (AES) on preexcitation via a long atrioventricular (AV) bypass tract (BT). No preexcitation is observed during normal sinus rhythm and during the pacing drive at a cycle length of 600 milliseconds (normal PR and His bundle–ventricular [HV] intervals). A, AES produces decremental conduction in the atrioventricular node (AVN) with prolongation of the atrial–His bundle (AH) interval (from 60 to 100 milliseconds), associated with manifest preexcitation and shortening of the HV interval (from 49 to 22 milliseconds). B and C, Progressively shorter AES coupling intervals produce decremental conduction in the BT and, to a greater degree, in the AVN. Consequently, the AH interval prolongs, the QRS morphology gradually shifts to a more preexcited left bundle branch block morphology, and the AV (P-delta) interval prolongs. However, the P-delta interval prolongs to a lesser degree than the AH interval. The HV interval decreases (becomes negative) but remains fixed (B and C) although the P-delta interval continues to prolong with more premature AES because of decremental conduction over the BT. The fixed ventricular–His bundle (VH) interval, despite shorter AES coupling intervals, suggests that the BT inserts into or near the distal right bundle branch (RB) at the anterior free wall of the right ventricle, with retrograde conduction to the His bundle (HB). However, because the VH interval is modestly long (40 milliseconds), a long decrementally conducting AV BT inserting into the ventricle close to the RB is more likely than an atriofascicular BT. C, AV reentrant echo complex (red arrows) secondary to anterograde conduction over the BT and retrograde conduction over the AVN.

With progressively shorter atrial pacing CLs or AES coupling intervals, the HV interval decreases as the His potential becomes progressively inscribed into the QRS (usually within the first 5 to 25 milliseconds after the onset of the QRS). The His potential eventually becomes activated retrogradely as the wavefront travels anterogradely down the BT and then retrogradely up the RB to the HB (see Fig. 19-3). When the His potential is lost within the QRS, it is unclear whether anterograde AV conduction continues to propagate over the HB or block has occurred.7

At the point of maximal preexcitation, the AV (A-delta) interval continues to prolong with more rapid pacing because of the decremental conduction properties of the BT, and the His potential–QRS relationship remains unaltered because the HB is activated retrogradely until block in the BT occurs. The fixed ventricular–His bundle (VH) interval, despite shorter pacing CLs or AES coupling intervals, suggests that the BT inserts into or near the distal RB at the anterior free wall of the RV with retrograde conduction to the HB. Whenever the VH interval is less than 20 milliseconds, insertion into the RB (i.e., atriofascicular or nodofascicular BT) is likely. On the other hand, with long decrementally conducting AV BTs, which insert into the ventricular myocardium close to the RB, the VH interval approximates the HV interval minus the duration of the His potential (because the His potential is activated retrogradely).5,7

For short decrementally conducting BTs, the HB is activated anterogradely, and retrograde conduction to the HB is only seen following AV block or during antidromic AVRT. Decremental conduction (progressive prolongation of the AV interval) and Wenckebach-type block develop in the BT. The conduction delay in these BTs is localized to the intraatrial portion of the BT; the interval from the inscription of the BT potential at the tricuspid annulus to the onset of ventricular activation (BT-V interval) remains constant.5

Dual AVN physiology is common in patients with atypical BTs. Sometimes, during AES, a jump from the fast to the slow AVN pathway prolongs the AH interval to a degree sufficient to unmask preexcitation over the BT, at which time the His potential becomes inscribed within the QRS.

The site of the earliest ventricular activation during preexcitation is at the RV apex for long, decrementally conducting AV BTs and atriofascicular BTs, but adjacent to the annulus near the base of the RV for short, decrementally conducting AV BTs.

The site of atrial stimulation does not influence the degree of preexcitation in the setting of nodofascicular and nodoventricular BTs. Contrariwise, preexcitation becomes more prominent when atrial stimulation is performed closer to the atrial insertion site of AV or atriofascicular BTs.

Induction of Tachycardia

Initiation by Atrial Extrastimulation or Atrial Pacing

Initiation of antidromic AVRT by an AES requires the following: (1) intact anterograde conduction over the BT; (2) anterograde block in the AVN or HPS; and (3) intact retrograde conduction over the HPS-AVN once the AVN resumes excitability following partial anterograde penetration. Whereas the latter is usually the limiting factor for the initiation of antidromic AVRT using typical rapidly conducting AV BTs, it is readily available in the setting of atypical BTs. This is because of the slow decremental conduction anterogradely over the atypical BT, providing adequate delay for full recovery of the HPS-AVN.

As noted, progressively shorter atrial pacing CLs (especially from the RA) result in progressive AV (A-delta) interval prolongation and a greater degree of preexcitation until maximal. Often, once maximal preexcitation has been achieved, cessation of pacing is followed by preexcited SVT. Progressively shorter AES coupling intervals similarly result in progressive AV (A-delta) interval prolongation and a greater degree of preexcitation until maximal. When anterograde AVN conduction fails but conduction persists over the BT, the HPS-AVN can be activated retrogradely to initiate antidromic AVRT.7

The sudden appearance of preexcitation associated with a “jump” from the fast to the slow AVN pathway with a His potential inscribed before ventricular activation or with a VH interval of less than 10 milliseconds strongly favors AVNRT. Although a slowly conducting atriofascicular BT that becomes manifest with a jump to the slow AVN pathway cannot be excluded, a consistent pattern of dual pathway dependence and an HV relationship too short to be retrograde from the distal RB would be unlikely.7 Induction of AVNRT with AES is almost always associated with a dual pathway response, which may not be seen if the impulse conducts anterogradely over the BT and captures the HB before it is activated by the impulse traversing the slow AVN pathway anterogradely. In other cases, a jump can be seen so that the anterograde His potential follows the QRS with a typical AVN echo to initiate SVT, analogous to 1:2 conduction initiating antidromic AVRT.

Initiation by Ventricular Extrastimulation or Ventricular Pacing

Initiation of antidromic AVRT by ventricular pacing or VES requires the following: (1) retrograde block in the BT, which is almost always available, because the atypical BTs are usually unidirectional (anterograde only); (2) retrograde conduction over the HPS-AVN; and (3) adequate VA delay to allow for recovery of the atrium and BT so it can support subsequent anterograde conduction.

Ventricular pacing can initiate SVT in 85% of cases. Initiation is almost always associated with retrograde conduction up a relatively fast AVN pathway, followed by anterograde conduction down a slow pathway, which is associated with preexcitation. The anterograde slow pathway can be a BT (i.e., antidromic AVRT) or a slow AVN pathway (i.e., AVNRT with an innocent bystander BT). During induction of the SVT by ventricular pacing at a CL similar to the tachycardia CL or by a VES that advances the His potential by a coupling interval similar to the H-H interval during the SVT, the His bundle–atrial (HA) interval following the ventricular stimulus is compared with that during the SVT—an HA interval that is longer with ventricular pacing or VES initiating the SVT than that during the SVT suggests AVNRT. This occurs despite the fact that the H-H interval of the VES (i.e., the interval between the His potential activated anterogradely by the last sinus beat to the His potential activated retrogradely by the VES initiating the SVT) exceeds the H-H interval during the SVT. Because the AVN usually exhibits greater decremental conduction with repetitive engagement of impulses than in response to a single impulse at a similar coupling interval, the more prolonged the HA with the initiating ventricular stimulus, the more likely the SVT is AVNRT. If the SVT uses the BT for anterograde conduction, the HA interval during ventricular pacing or the VES initiating the SVT, at a comparable coupling interval as the tachycardia CL, should have the same HA interval as during the SVT.