Cervical Squamous Intraepithelial Lesions
Introduction
Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is now understood to be the underlying cause of squamous carcinogenesis in the cervix.1–4 Older diagnostic classifications of preinvasive disease based purely on descriptive correlation of histology with clinical behavior included dysplasia/carcinoma in situ (CIS; a four-grade system) and cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN; a three-grade system). Each provided a convenient diagnostic spectrum against which patient samples could be matched, and both are still in use to varying degrees.
The clinical goal of segregating individual lesions into dichotomous high- and low-risk categories was furthered by evidence showing that cancer outcomes correlated predominantly with one of two HPV subtype classes. Thus, the two-class Bethesda System of low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (LSIL) and high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (HSIL) was formally endorsed by the National Cancer Institute (USA) at a workshop held in December 1988.5 Implementation was recommended for lesions in the cervix and vagina. LSIL was generally equated with condylomata and CIN 1, and HSIL with CIN grades 2 and 3 (CIN 2, CIN 3, or CIN 2–3). This principle of a two-tier system was reaffirmed by consensus of the College of American Pathologists and American Society for Clinical Pathology (ASCP) in 2012, with the additional recommendation that it be extended to all anogenital HPV-related lesions, including those in vulvar and perianal sites.6
The initial expectation of the two-tier system was that viral type would be the primary determinant of outcome, and careful correlation of intraepithelial morphology with viral type would yield diagnostic criteria for the new entities of LSIL and HSIL. However, it is now clear that LSIL is the biologic manifestation of productive HPV infection with episomal viral DNA. Therefore, all HPVs can generate low-grade morphology as this type of cellular differentiation is required for viral replication to produce viral particles (virions). These infections and their cytohistologic manifestations are almost always transient, resolving on average in less than a year.7
HSIL results predominantly from genomic integration of high-risk types of HPV DNA into the host genome of replicating parabasal cells, with consequent deregulation of expression of E6 and E7 viral oncogenes. The parabasal cells become disorganized relative to the underlying basement membrane, with subsequent clonal expansion extending upward toward the epithelial surface (Figure 10.1). Cells containing only integrated viral DNA are virologically noninfectious as no viral particles are produced but the viral genes drive the human (host) cells to proliferate. HSILs may, however, contain both episomal and integrated HPV DNA,8 which is consistent with the presence of koilocytes in some HSILs.
Figure 10.1 Morphologic features and nomenclature of preinvasive cervical disease. The morphologic changes that occur with increasing lesion grade and how the SIL (Bethesda) and CIN systems relate to one another are illustrated. Quantitative features that become increasingly more abnormal with increasing grade are listed, along with those qualitative features that differ across the LSIL–HSIL boundary. The corresponding cytologic smear appearances resulting from exfoliation of the most superficial cells are also illustrated. Note that some pathologists subdivide HSIL into HSIL (CIN 2) and HSIL (CIN 3), which are comparable to CIN 2 and CIN 3 respectively.
Of the more than 120 HPV types known to exist,9 only about 30–40 affect the genital tract. Probably less than 15 are oncogenic; the most common is HPV type 16 and its related viruses 31, 33, 35, and 56 from the α 9 clade (a taxonomic group derived from a common ancestor)9 and type 18 with its close relations such as type 45 (Table 10.1).10 They are termed high risk or oncogenic because they are the types found in invasive tumors. Progression of high-risk viral infection to HSIL is inefficient and, although high-risk types are the most common cervical HPV infections, most result in only low-grade lesions. The low-risk group constitutes only a minority of cervical infections. The low-risk HPV types are prototypically HPV types 6 and 11 whose biology is one of transient productive infection with only extremely rare examples of progression to carcinoma. The apparent prevalence of HPV infection in cervical lesions of different types and grades depends on the technique used for detection of the virus and the criteria applied for histologic annotation.
Table 10.1
Classification of HPV Types Associated with Genital Lesions10
Most Common Types | |
6,11 | Condyloma acuminatum, LSIL (condyloma/CIN 1) |
16 | All grades of SIL, squamous cell carcinoma |
18 | All grades of SIL, adenocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, small cell carcinoma |
Less Common Types | |
31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56 | All grades of SIL, squamous cell carcinoma |
30, 40, 58, 69 | All grades of SIL |
42, 43, 44 | Condyloma acuminatum, LSIL (condyloma/CIN 1) |
53 | Normal cervical epithelium, LSIL (condyloma/CIN 1) and sometimes HSIL (CIN 2) |
54 | Condyloma acuminatum |
55 | Bowenoid papulosis |
59 | Vulvar HSIL (usual type vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia) |
61, 62, 64, 67 | Vaginal HSIL (vaginal intraepithelial neoplasia) |
66 | Squamous cell carcinoma |
70 | Vulvar papilloma |
Irrespective of HPV type, the viral cytopathic effect (koilocytosis) and the production of viral capsid protein become progressively less frequent with increasing lesion grade (Table 10.2).11 Indeed, the inability of most high-grade lesions to support productive HPV infection can be viewed in a biologic context as viral failure. Local immune response within the cervical microenvironment is somewhat more common with high-risk HPV infections, and this can be associated with regression of HSILs.12,13 Conversely, low-grade lesions are, in a sense, ‘successful’ infections in that they represent productive infections with little or no propensity to kill the host.
Although SILs are capable of changing dynamically over time as a combined function of viral type(s), phase of viral life cycle (especially episomal vs integrated) and host factors, classification of SILs must be accomplished from the morphologic appearance of an individual HPV-infected squamous lesion. Further information about virologic and immunologic dynamics of HPV infection from individual and public health perspectives are available in Chapter 9. Cervical biopsy and cytologic smears each have their own sampling and interpretive errors, occasionally creating discordant results. Both are equally variable and may provide valuable information on disease presence or absence. Even visually directed colposcopic biopsy is imperfect in identifying the area of most severe pathology.14 Every attempt should be made to reconcile discordances by a combination of interpretive re-review, or further sampling, as clinically appropriate. Evidence-based criteria-driven approaches to diagnosis remain the best way to achieve clinical utility with a minimum of interpretive variation.15
Squamous Intraepithelial Lesions (SILs)
Nomenclature
The nomenclature used to describe the precursor conditions of invasive squamous cell carcinoma continues to be a subject of some debate. In the 1950s and into the 1960s, the term ‘dysplasia’ was equated to a graded lesion something less than CIS, which was diagnosed and managed separately. Both were composed of basal-type cells extending upward in the epithelium, to almost full thickness in the case of severe dysplasia. Flattening of the topmost surface cells, construed as a sign of differentiation, was said to occur in severe dysplasia, but not CIS. These diagnoses led to widely divergent interventions: the former passively followed, and the latter often to hysterectomy. Critical examination of the data subsequently showed that distinction between severe dysplasia and CIS was not only poorly reproducible by pathologists, but, when applied, failed to stratify patients into differing risk groups for invasive carcinoma.15,16 Lack of clinical significance of the dysplasia/CIS distinction led to the simplified classification of CIN in which three grades of precancerous lesions were acknowledged, but the term ‘carcinoma’ was reserved for invasive processes. New treatment options for intraepithelial precursor lesions, intended to ablate only the cervical lining, were introduced. These included topically applied liquid nitrogen (cryosurgery), laser ablation, and local excision by electrocautery loop.
Knowledge of the role of HPV infection (see Chapter 9)1,2,15 and more specifically the roles of individual HPV types, suggested division according to the presence of the low-risk HPV types such as HPV 6 and 11 and the high-risk HPV types, most commonly HPV 16 and 18. Since the late 1980s, the Bethesda classification scheme, introduced for use in reporting cervical cytology smears, has incorporated these concepts into a bimodal classification system of LSIL/HSIL, which differ in their risk for subsequent carcinoma. HPV lesions previously considered condylomata or CIN 1 (mild dysplasia) are grouped into the single category of LSIL. These low-grade lesions have a low growth fraction, koilocytotic atypia (also called ‘HPV cytopathic effect’), and are the morphologic manifestation of productive HPV infection. They might perhaps be better called ‘low risk for the development of high-grade intraepithelial neoplasia or invasive carcinoma.’ All HPV types functionally produce LSIL at some point in their life cycle (or they would not survive). In contrast, HSILs are the approximate equivalent of CIN 2 and CIN 3 (moderate dysplasia, severe dysplasia, and CIS). HSIL is sometimes subdivided into HSIL-2 and HSIL-3 to reflect this comparison with CIN 2 and CIN 3. The relationship between these various terms is shown in Figure 10.1. A strength of the Bethesda System is that it may be applied to both cytologic and histologic specimens. The cells from an HPV-associated lesion are all included under the umbrella of SIL, as there is no underlying biologic or diagnostic basis to maintain a separate category of non-SIL condyloma.15 As suggested earlier, the concept of progression is best considered probabilistically, incorporating independent assessment of the results of cytology and biopsy and, when appropriate, HPV testing.17,18
Features
The histopathologic assessment of a cervical biopsy must determine whether SIL is present in a sample of epithelium and, if so, the grade of SIL (Figure 10.2). Both of these decisions may be difficult to make: the former because benign and reactive changes may be mistaken for SIL; the latter because interpretation of features used for grading is complex (Table 10.3).
Table 10.3
Histopathologic Features of SIL/CIN
These features become progressively more prominent with increasing grade.
Figure 10.2 Abrupt transition between normal squamous epithelium (right) and an adjacent HSIL (left).
Changes of HPV Infection
In cervical epithelia, all productive HPV infections commonly manifest themselves both cytologically and histologically through a distinctive cytopathic effect. The cell in which this is found has been termed the ‘koilocyte’ (Figure 10.3). This feature, first recognized more than 50 years ago, was given the term ‘koilocytotic atypia’ (some use koilocytic) as these cells histologically resembled those in skin warts. Some 20 years later it was recognized that this same cell type occurred in genital warts and was associated with both HPV infection and preinvasive squamous intraepithelial lesions.
The koilocyte is an intermediate cell that has a prominent cytoplasmic space around an atypical nucleus (Table 10.4; Figures 10.3–10.8). Due to an extensively marginated cytoplasm, the halo has a sharp edge. The cytoplasmic change is thought to be due to abundant expression of the HPV E1∧E4 fusion protein, which binds with cytoplasmic keratin. Even in the state where the nuclei are not overtly dysplastic by size criteria, they are still, nonetheless, irregular and hyperchromatic and, if near the surface, may show a wrinkled nuclear membrane. The nuclei, which lack nucleoli, are usually two to four times larger in nuclear area than those of the adjacent, nonballooned cells. Koilocytotic atypia, which under the Bethesda classification is considered a low-grade SIL, is the most common definite abnormality in cytologically screened women and is found in up to 4% of all cervical smears.
Table 10.4
Koilocytotic Change: Diagnostic Criteria
Well-defined and exaggerated perinuclear halo
Cytoplasmic condensation around the halo
Nuclear area at least 2–3 times that of a normal intermediate cell nucleus
Increased nuclear to cytoplasmic ratio
Mild nuclear hyperchromasia (usually)
Wrinkled nuclear membrane
Nuclear membrane chromatin condensation
Degenerative nuclear changes (variable)
Figure 10.4 HPV-associated koilocytes in an LSIL. The cells in the intermediate layers are ballooned with copious clear cytoplasm. One cell is binucleate (arrow). The lowermost layer of cells against the basement membrane is orderly.
Figure 10.6 LSIL (CIN 1). Several of the koilocytes show nuclear atypia, which persists in the parakeratotic scale. Figures 10.4–10.6 are all low-risk viral lesions.
Figure 10.7 The nuclei of koilocytes are wrinkled and enlarged but show neither mitotic activity nor nucleoli.
Figure 10.8 High-power magnification of koilocytes. The nuclei are wrinkled and enlarged with coarse chromatin.
While the koilocyte is often described to be pathognomonic for HPV infection, perinuclear halos that mimic koilocytotic atypia may be caused by other infectious diseases and at times may be due to artifact. Epstein–Barr virus, when present in the cervix, may be associated with koilocytic change19 (although this may also be due to coinfection with HPV). Likewise, when the cytoplasmic halo is less than morphologically perfect, i.e., when the borders are smooth or when the nuclei have smooth borders, trichomoniasis may be a consideration. It is therefore important that the presence of a cytoplasmic halo is not overinterpreted as due to HPV infection. Rather, it is the combination of a well-defined halo plus definite nuclear atypia as defined previously that confers specificity to the morphologic findings. Other features associated with HPV infection include binucleation (Figure 10.4) and meganuclei. Both are found in the mid to superficial levels. Some investigators have suggested that the latter feature, or more severely pleomorphic koilocytes, is more associated with high-risk HPV types. However, since over 85% of cervical HPV infections are due to viruses from the high-risk group, this is not a practically useful concept and LSILs of the cervix cannot be reliably genotyped by morphology.
Nuclear Abnormalities
The defining hallmarks of SIL are its nuclear abnormalities. These include nuclei that are enlarged, pleomorphic (irregular in size and shape), and often have a wrinkled nuclear membrane. The chromatin is increased in amount (hyperchromasia) and irregularly clumped, often condensing along the inside of the nuclear membrane. Collectively, this constellation of features is described as ‘nuclear atypia.’ These changes may reflect the polyploid and/or aneuploid DNA content of the cells induced by the action of HPV E6 and E7 on host DNA synthesis and cell cycle checkpoints (see Chapter 9) and are important for the diagnosis of SIL. Neoplastic atypia is distinguished from reactive changes by the heterogeneity of the nuclear changes in SIL, contrasting with the relatively homogeneous changes in reactive atypia. It is of note that nucleoli are rare in preinvasive lesions, especially in smears, but are commonly seen in reactive atypia.
Mitotic Activity
Mitotic activity above the basal layer, however, is not always by itself pathognomonic for SIL. A reactive or inflamed but otherwise normal differentiated epithelium may also have increased mitotic activity, but the mitotic figures are concentrated in the basal areas. More problematic are reactive changes in metaplastic squamous areas, such as an inflamed transformation zone, as these may have full thickness mitotic activity and fail to demonstrate the polarization of differentiation. The presence of reactive cytologic features lacking the particular chromatin condensation of SIL may assist in the distinction. Special stains for p16, which is positive in epithelia infected with high-risk HPV, may also be helpful in differentiating between reactive metaplasia and SIL.
Abnormal mitotic configurations, which reflect aneuploidy, are common in HSIL, where they account for between 15% and 30% of total mitoses, but rare in LSIL. HSIL associated with HPV type 16 infection has the highest number of mitoses and the most abnormal forms.20,21 The most common of these abnormal configurations is the lag-type mitosis, which is defined as a metaphase with nonattached chromatin in the area of the mitotic figure. The ‘three-group metaphase’ (Figure 10.9), which is where the main mass of the chromatin aligns along the equatorial plate and the nonattached condensed chromatin remains laterally at the two polar sites, has been found in 6% of CIN 1–2, 56% of CIN 3, and 93% of high-grade CIN lesions just adjacent to microinvasive carcinoma.22,23 Two-group metaphases (displaced chromatin at only one polar site) may also be seen. Less common than either of these forms is the multipolar mitotic figure, either as a triaster (tripolar) (Figure 10.10) or as a more bizarre multipolar figure (Figure 10.11). Tripolar mitoses may reflect polyploidy, rather than aneuploidy, and thus may be seen in both HSIL and LSIL.
Differentiation, Maturation, and Stratification
The proportion of epithelial cells showing differentiation is a useful indicator of the grade of SIL, although it must not be taken as the only criterion. For example, while SIL develops by a dysplastic process and may show little if any differentiation, it may be difficult to distinguish from an immature, but nondysplastic metaplastic squamous epithelium that also lacks any substantial degree of cytoplasmic differentiation. In this case, the distinguishing feature is the lack of nuclear atypia in the metaplastic process as well as much less evidence of mitotic activity. Nonetheless, distinction between the two conditions can be difficult and the presence of atypical changes in immature metaplastic squamous epithelium may indicate SIL, as shown by the presence of high-risk HPV types, high Ki-67 proliferation indices, p16 expression, and follow-up studies.24,25
As normal cells differentiate and mature and migrate toward the surface, stratification is observed. One means of assessing maturation is to look for a decreasing percentage of nuclear area to overall epithelial area, reflecting a decreasing nuclear to cytoplasmic ratio at increasingly more superficial levels of the epithelium. In smears, which sample superficial cell layers preferentially, this change in ratio is quite dramatic. In normal smears, the nucleus has undergone pyknosis by the time the cell reaches the surface, so that in the smear the nuclear to cytoplasmic ratio is quite low. With increasing grade of SIL, the individual cells have matured progressively less so that the amount of cytoplasm present, as well as its differentiation, is less. Thus, mildly dyskaryotic (a synonym of dysplasia used in cytologic terminology)/LSIL cells present in cervical smears/scrapes have ample cytoplasm with a well-defined polygonal squamous shape, and moderately dyskaryotic/HSIL-2 cells possess less cytoplasm and a less well-defined oval or elliptical squamous shape, whereas in severely dyskaryotic/HSIL-3 cells the rim of cytoplasm that encircles the nucleus is small. These features also occur in histopathologically defined lesions and, in SIL, the proportionally decreasing quantity of cytoplasm contributes far more to the increase in the nuclear to cytoplasmic ratio with increasing lesion grade than does the change in nuclear size. This is consistent with the persistence of nuclear abnormality throughout the epithelial thickness in all grades of SIL.
Disease States: Types of SIL
Despite the earlier critical comments about reproducibility, application of discrete diagnostic criteria allows for distinction between benign cervix and SIL, and grading of SILs. SIL is primarily divided into two major classes of LSIL (condyloma/CIN 1) and HSIL (CIN 2–3), using similar terminologies across cytologic and histologic specimens.6
The following discussion should be used as a general guide to the central features of the distinct grades of SIL, since examples of the same SIL grade may have varying appearances. For example, one specimen may show a lack of differentiation and stratification throughout (Figure 10.12), whereas others may show more prominent mitoses, some being abnormal (Figure 10.13), or bizarre nuclei located at superficial levels (Figure 10.14). Many of the histologic features used in the grading of SIL may vary independently of each other, so the emphasis put on each of these criteria may vary from one specimen to another. All of this variation diminishes reproducibility of diagnosis.
Figure 10.13 HSIL (CIN 3) in which a thin residual layer of mucinous columnar cells is present on the surface.
Like histology, assignment of an overall grade of SIL to a smear is as subjective as the assessment-based examination of the individual cells. The cervical smear will frequently contain cells showing both grades of SIL, and it is the most severe cell type that determines the grade (Figure 10.15). A smear containing only a few dyskaryotic (dysplastic) cells, all of which show a marked degree of abnormality, almost certainly reflects HSIL. Likewise, a smear containing a majority of dyskaryotic (dysplastic) cells of moderate degree with only occasional severely dyskaryotic (dysplastic) cells, while seemingly suggestive of HSIL (CIN 2), will often disclose HSIL (CIN 3) on biopsy or conization.
Figure 10.15 HSIL, severe dyskaryosis, on a cervical smear. The atypical cells have a high nuclear to cytoplasmic ratio.
LSIL (Condyloma/CIN 1)
LSIL is a term that unifies entities previously referred to as condyloma acuminatum, ‘flat condyloma,’ and CIN 1. LSIL is the histopathologic presentation of productive episomal HPV propagation, essentially a field effect caused by viral activation in maturing squamous cells. Although a degree of nuclear maturation occurs, abnormal nuclei persist throughout the full thickness of the epithelium (if this were not so, a diagnosis by cytologic smear would not be possible; see earlier sections) (Figures 10.16–10.18). Mitotic figures, if present, are few in number and generally confined to the basal third of the epithelium. Abnormal mitosis forms are uncommon: these usually indicate aneuploidy and thus are more specific for the diagnosis of HSIL. Characteristic LSIL changes are concentrated in the upper part of the epithelium where productive episomal virus propagation in maturing squamous cells forms characteristic koilocytes. These koilocytotic nuclei can be wildly pleomorphic, and are among the largest nuclei seen in any kind of SIL. Upon integration of viral DNA into the genome of host cells, episomal propagation, and their koilocytotic phenotype, are diminished. Thus koilocytes are less common in HSIL (CIN 2 and 3), although they do still occur in these lesions, particularly where surface epithelial maturation is retained. LSILs, on occasion, may lie adjacent to high-grade lesions, or occasionally even adjacent to carcinomas. Sometimes this reflects progression of a single viral infection from an episomal to integrated phase across one epithelium, whereas in others it may be due to infection by multiple viral types.
Figure 10.16 LSIL (CIN 1). Cytologic atypia extends throughout the epithelium but there is cytoplasmic maturation and the superficial-most epithelial cells display marked koilocytosis.
Figure 10.18 LSIL (CIN 1). There is prominent nuclear pleomorphism in koilocytes with extensive cytoplasmic maturation.
Several other features are found with low-grade lesions. Nuclei that are binucleate (Figure 10.4), or even sometimes multinucleate, are found in 95% of HPV infections.26 Occasional cells may show individual cell keratinization (dyskeratosis) (Figures 10.19 and 10.20). In smears, LSIL (mildly dyskaryotic) cells have ample cytoplasm with a well-defined squamous shape (Figure 10.21). Anucleate and nucleate keratinized cells are commonly present in sheets or plaques with poorly defined cell borders.
On a cellular basis, the koilocyte in histologic specimens is usually distinctive although the number of cells with koilocytotic change ranges from few to many (Figure 10.22). Typically, the nucleus is 3–4 times enlarged in area compared to a normal intermediate cell, uniform in size and shape, and has a halo with smooth outer borders. HPV immunostains have shown that typical koilocytes usually react with antibodies to the HPV L1 group-specific capsid protein (Figures 10.23 and 10.24). Since capsid/virion production is a temporally controlled phenomenon linked to both differentiation and lesional age, which likely explains the variability in koilocyte number between lesions, not all cells containing HPV will necessarily stain. Cells less typical for koilocytes are less likely to stain. Because of the potential social stigma often attached to a smear or biopsy specimen that is diagnosed as harboring HPV, prudence dictates that no specimen should be diagnosed as LSIL unless the overall microscopic picture is distinctive.
LSIL (Condyloma Acuminatum)
Condylomata acuminata of the cervix, exophytic papillary lesions caused by HPV (Figure 10.25), are much less common than those with flat architecture. This fact is consistent with the knowledge that the acuminate architecture is somewhat more frequently associated with HPV types 6 and 11 and some other low-risk types, and that these make up only 10–15% of cervical infections. Yet HPV 6/11 account for around 95% of cutaneous genital condylomata. Larger condylomata can be seen with the naked eye, and they may initially be mistaken for carcinoma (Figure 10.26).
Figure 10.25 LSIL (condyloma acuminatum). The condyloma is exophytic but very small in size. It turned white when 3% acetic acid was applied.
Figure 10.26 LSIL (condyloma acuminatum). This exophytic condyloma acuminatum is large and cauliflower-like.
The histology of exophytic, or acuminate, LSIL (condyloma) shows papillomatosis, acanthosis, parakeratosis, and hyperkeratosis. At higher magnification, each asperity, i.e., each papillary frond, has a tiny blood vessel at its core. Koilocytotic atypia is usually a prominent feature, with individual cell keratinization (dyskeratosis) and multinucleation. There is often a chronic inflammatory infiltrate in the underlying cervical stroma (Figures 10.27–10.30).
LSIL (‘Flat Condyloma’/CIN 1)
Flat LSILs that lack the architecture of condyloma acuminatum are recognizable colposcopically, cytologically, and histologically but cannot usually be seen with the naked eye (not to be confused with condylomata lata or flat warts of secondary syphilis, which are external genital lesions) (Figures 10.4–10.6, 10.16–10.18, 10.22–10.24). The colposcopic features are fully described later, but they are not altogether diagnostic. Based on histology, several features in addition to the presence of koilocytes are useful in the detection of HPV infection. On low-power magnification, large areas may be composed of squamous epithelial cells lacking glycogen. While suggestive, this feature is nonspecific. The cytoplasm from the basal-most cells to the surface is eosinophilic. Commonly a sharp boundary demarcates the epithelium that is glycogen rich (normal) and glycogen poor (HPV). In addition, the superficial cells in the glycogen-poor zones commonly show acanthosis, parakeratosis, and sometimes even hyperkeratosis. The last, rarely, may be quite striking (Figure 10.31). The term flat condyloma, originally used to describe lesions containing koilocytes but without a condylomatous architecture or CIN 1, is a contradiction and is no longer used, and is now replaced by LSIL. Whether flat lesions with and without CIN 1 can be separated reproducibly, and whether their separation has any clinical meaning, is debatable but some, particularly those using the CIN system, attempt to make this distinction.
High-Grade Squamous Intraepithelial Lesions (CIN 2–3)
HSIL (CIN 2)
In HSIL (CIN 2), the upper two-thirds of the epithelium shows some differentiation and maturation, with, as in LSIL, nuclear atypia persisting to the surface (Figures 10.32–10.38). Nuclear abnormalities are more marked than in LSIL, and more nuclei with greater degrees of abnormality are found high in the epithelium. Examination of the lowermost epithelial layer, abutting the basement membrane, is an important aspect of segregating LSIL from HSIL (CIN 2), with irregular nuclear placement in HSIL (CIN 2) creating a ‘jumbled’ look. Mitotic figures are present in the basal two-thirds of the epithelium. If attention is focused upon the findings in the upper portion of the epithelium, the changes would be similar qualitatively, but more advanced quantitatively, in comparison to LSIL. More nuclei are pleomorphic in relation to neighboring nuclei, lack polarity to various degrees, have wrinkled nuclear membranes, and show various degrees of hyperchromasia. Overall, the percentage of nuclear area to total epithelial area is roughly 40–60% in the upper half of the epithelium.
Figure 10.32 HSIL (CIN 2). There are several atypical mitoses in a lesion that exhibits suprabasal cytoplasmic maturation.
Figure 10.33 HSIL (CIN 2). Cytoplasmic maturation is less than that seen in LSIL, and is largely confined to the upper third of the epithelium. Basal cells are not oriented against the basement membrane.
Figure 10.35 HSIL (CIN 2). Many of the abnormal nuclei in the upper epithelium are larger than those seen in the basal epithelium.
Figure 10.36 HSIL (CIN 2) with koilocytosis. Although cut tangentially, the cells show cytoplasmic maturation and koilocytosis toward the surface.
Figure 10.37 HSIL, moderate dyskaryosis. The nuclei are large, occupying more than half the total cell size.
Figure 10.38 HSIL, moderate dyskaryosis. A sheet of cells with atypical nuclei and reduced amounts of cytoplasm showing some differentiation.
The diagnosis of CIN 2 is the least reproducible form of CIN. It is viewed by some as an equivocal diagnostic interpretation, by others as a distinctive intermediate biologic state. Across the spectrum of individual examples encountered, it is probably both. By forcing diagnostic reassignment of HSIL (CIN 2) into LSIL and HSIL (CIN 3) categories, approximately one-third are the former and two thirds the latter.17
HSIL (CIN 3)
In HSIL (CIN 3), any maturation, if present, is confined to the superficial third of the epithelium. Generally, it is minimal to completely absent. Nuclear abnormalities are marked throughout the whole thickness of the epithelium. Similarly, mitotic figures are found at all levels of the epithelium and may be numerous. The findings in the upper portion of the epithelium include more extensive nuclear changes and the proportion of the lesional area that consists of nuclear material can exceed 60% in the upper half of the epithelium (Figure 10.39). In smears, the rim of cytoplasm is thin, and the nucleus occupies virtually the entire cell (Figure 10.15). As with HSIL (CIN 2), the basal-most layer of cells is disorderly in HSIL (CIN 3).
Areas of Diagnostic Difficulty
The Scant Endocervical Curettage
In the absence of any generally accepted criteria for what constitutes either an adequate or scant specimen, pathologists frequently encounter the problem of what language to use when reporting a curettage specimen where the diagnostic tissue is less than sufficient. This is also true for endometrial samples where only endocervical tissue is present. Many specimens, even with copious amounts of material, consist largely of mucus, which itself is not of diagnostic value. Often the only diagnostic cellular component present consists of little more than a few small strips of mucinous columnar epithelium devoid of any underlying stroma. To diagnose a specimen as ‘unsatisfactory’ would generally require that the clinician repeat a painful procedure. The recommended approach is to report endocervical curettages (ECCs) descriptively (mucus, mucinous columnar cells, fragments of endocervix, fragments of exocervix) and when necessary with the qualifiers ‘scant, rare, miniscule quantities of, etc.’ A typical example is ‘scant mucus and mucinous columnar epithelium.’ When the specimen consists of just a few exfoliated mucinous cells, some use the phraseology ‘rare exfoliated mucinous cells, inadequate (or insufficient or suboptimal) for further diagnosis,’ which serves as a trigger for the clinician to rethink the issue. A distinction should be made between strips of mucinous columnar cells and rare isolated exfoliated mucinous cells as the former likely reflects the curettage while the latter may represent little more than cells already exfoliated into the mucus. Although the ECC is primarily used to assess the extent of squamous neoplasia, it also helps in evaluating the presence or absence of glandular tumors and their precursors that may involve the endocervix.
Basal Cell Hyperplasia
In some cases, the distinction between basal cell hyperplasia and HSIL (CIN 2-3) can be difficult to make. Cases exist where the basal and parabasal cells are remarkably abnormal, and yet the upper two-thirds of the epithelium is relatively normal (Figures 10.40 and 10.41). Emphasis on the upper layers leads to a diagnosis of basal cell hyperplasia, whereas emphasis on the basal layers leads to a diagnosis of HSIL (CIN 2-3). Ki-67 (MIB1) and p16 immunohistochemistry can be helpful in making the distinction, with Ki-67 highlighting the increased proliferation and p16 the presence of a high-risk HPV infection in HSIL.
Immature Squamous Metaplasia and Atypical Squamous Metaplasia
Squamous metaplasia is a physiologic process characterized by reserve cell hyperplasia, early squamous differentiation, variable polarity, and nuclear enlargement, any component of which may sometimes be quite exaggerated (see Chapter 8). Nuclear pleomorphism and hyperchromasia are absent, thus rendering to the epithelium an appearance of somewhat bland nuclei of uniform size and shape (the nuclei are typically round). During the time when metaplastic squamous cells develop, they may undermine and replace endocervical columnar cells. At times the nuclei can be enlarged and yet be relatively uniform, which elicits differences in diagnoses among pathologists as to whether the lesion represents immature squamous metaplasia or SIL, especially when columnar cells are present on the surface (Figure 10.42). HPV-associated features such as koilocytosis are rarely seen in immature metaplastic squamous epithelium, presumably as a result of the lack of differentiation.
Figure 10.42 Immature squamous metaplasia versus HSIL (CIN 2), with surface columnar epithelium. Ki-67 and p16 immunostaining may help to make this distinction.
It can be difficult to distinguish immature squamous metaplasia with minimal nuclear changes from SIL (CIN) (Table 10.5). Typically, immature metaplastic squamous cells have abundant cytoplasm and homogeneous round nuclei with fine speckled chromatin and a small nucleolus. The frequency of Ki-67 (MIB1)-reactive nuclei is low and the staining intensity minimal.27 Cylindrical cells can occur intermingled with, or at the surface of, the immature cells and then are a strong diagnostic criterion, but are not always present. Whenever substantial nuclear pleomorphism is found, SIL (CIN) should be diagnosed even if columnar cells are present on the surface (Figure 10.43). Ki-67 staining is useful in resolving the differential diagnosis, as it is typically unremarkable in immature squamous metaplasia but appears at high density throughout the epithelium in SIL (CIN). Similarly, p16 is typically diffusely expressed in SIL (CIN) but absent or expressed only focally in immature metaplastic squamous epithelium.
Table 10.5
Differential Diagnostic Features of Immature Squamous Metaplasia and SIL (CIN)
Feature | Immature squamous Metaplasia | SIL (CIN) |
Nuclei | Round | Variable |
Chromatin | Homogeneous | Coarse, clumped |
Nucleoli | Single and prominent | Usually inconspicuous. When present, often large and multiple |
Cylindrical cells | Useful when present but often absent | Absent |
Ki-67 (MIB1) | Scattered positive cells | Often diffusely positive |
p16 | Negative or focally positive | Diffusely positive |
Repair (Reactive Epithelial Changes)
Repair of the squamous epithelium is a condition that commonly mimics the features of SIL (CIN).28 Unlike SIL (CIN), the stroma in repair is virtually always chronically and often floridly inflamed. The nuclei are uniform, with no or minimal pleomorphism. The chromatin is bland and evenly distributed. Nucleoli of ‘bull’s eye’ or macronucleolar appearance are often easily found (Figure 10.44). The epithelium in SIL (CIN) may be incidentally associated with an intensely inflamed stroma, but can be recognized by nuclei that are pleomorphic and commonly display coarse chromatin and mitoses.
Low Estrogen States and Atrophy
In low estrogen states (i.e., after menopause), and in high progesterone states (e.g. during pregnancy or as a result of progestogen therapy), the cervical squamous epithelium is usually thin and may be composed entirely of parabasal cells. While mild nuclear hyperchromasia is often seen, the nuclei are uniform in size and shape and a constant amount of cytoplasm surrounds most nuclei. Nuclear pleomorphism is absent. In some postmenopausal women, the cervix may exhibit a spectrum of epithelial alterations, including prominent perinuclear halos, nuclear hyperchromasia, some variation in nuclear size, and multinucleation. In one study, all cases showing these changes were negative for HPV by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis.29 Several features help to distinguish postmenopausal atrophy from the HPV-associated changes of SIL (CIN). They include less variation in nuclear size and staining intensity, more finely and evenly distributed nuclear chromatin, and greater uniformity of perinuclear halos in the former. Ki-67 (MIB1) expression can also be useful, as positive nuclei are typically limited to the lower layers. However, this must be interpreted with care as very thin epithelium may lack superficial cells and can mimic HSIL (CIN 2-3). However, correlation with HPV testing is important as many studies demonstrate a ‘bump’ in HPV prevalence in the postmenopausal age group. p16 immunostaining can be helpful as a surrogate marker of high-risk HPV infection in this situation as it is typically diffusely positive in SIL (CIN) but negative in atrophic epithelium. Hence, a combination of Ki-67 and p16 immunostaining may be particularly useful in this context.
Thin Epithelium
In an epithelium that has only a few layers of cells, it is commonly impossible to confidently diagnose the presence of SIL (CIN). There is often the concern that the epithelium is not naturally thin, and that some artifactual process is responsible for the removal of multiple superficial layers. In the absence of severe inflammation, SIL (CIN) should usually be diagnosed if there is cytologic atypia (Figure 10.45). Sometimes, the number of cell layers present is sufficient to diagnose SIL (CIN), or even probable HSIL (CIN 2-3), but further definition is precluded (Figure 10.46). It may be helpful to designate these lesions as SIL (CIN) of indeterminate grade (or ungradeable SIL (CIN)), using the cytologic features to indicate whether the lesion is likely to be low or high grade. Correlation with the Pap smear may be useful in this situation, as may immunostaining for Ki-67 and p16, as discussed previously for atrophic epithelium.
Invasive Squamous Cell Carcinoma
Not uncommonly, one of the most difficult entities to distinguish from HSIL (CIN 2-3) is invasive squamous cell carcinoma. This occurs most commonly if the biopsy is superficial and is devoid of an obvious stromal component. In such examples, the lesion appears as sheets of irregularly folded dysplastic epithelium lying on a thin basement membrane. The most appropriate diagnosis is that of ‘at least HSIL (CIN 2-3), cannot exclude invasion. In one study testing for cellular features that distinguish invasive and noninvasive disease, several histologic features found in the cone biopsy specimens were preferentially associated with invasive tumor.30 These included giant bizarre cells that were irregular, hyperchromatic, and up to five times the size of a basal cell (67% vs 6%), large keratinized cells with distinct cell borders (87% vs 0%), keratin pearls (41% vs 0%), necrosis, often comedo-like (80% vs 8%), and neovascularized tumor cells close to the endothelial lining and lacking intervening connective tissue (57% vs 0%). In 74% of invasive carcinomas, a component of CIN 3 was present, of which 35% showed large keratinized cells or keratin pearls in the in situ components. This suggested that the presence of either feature in biopsy specimens showing CIN 3 might signify the presence of invasive lesions elsewhere in the cervical mucosa. In another study, several histologic features were associated with the presence of invasive disease: these included extensive and expansile involvement of endocervical crypts; and the presence of comedo-type necrosis in the center of involved crypts (see later).31
It is not unusual for the diagnosis of HSIL (CIN 2-3) to be correct, but for the results of hysterectomy to show the disease process to be more extensive than expected. Occasionally, the surface and the endocervical crypts are involved only by HSIL (CIN 2-3) in a biopsy, as suggested by a history of only HSIL (CIN 2-3) on smears (even when reviewed retrospectively) and the absence of any abnormality clinically. However, the hysterectomy specimen shows that the cervical wall harbors a small carcinoma or on occasion is permeated by a larger carcinoma (see Chapter 11).
Artifact
Fragmentation and thermal artifact in cone, loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP) or loop excision of the transformation zone (LETZ) biopsy specimens are major problems affecting correct diagnosis.32,33 When specimens are fragmented into multiple small pieces, it is difficult, if not impossible, to evaluate margins. Thermal artifact, which is often caused by low-voltage techniques, results in an epithelium that appears smudged and uninterpretable. Cellular and nuclear details are lost (Figure 10.47). In a LEEP biopsy correctly done, the thermal artifact produces a very thin rim, usually a fraction of a millimeter wide, at the periphery of the specimen. The outermost layer, the carbonization zone, is usually quite thin. The coagulation zone is deeper and is significantly larger and more readily apparent. Unacceptable thermal artifact occurs when the coagulation zone is wide (Figure 10.48), resulting in extensive loss of cellular detail. A randomized controlled trial that evaluated pure cut versus traditional blending settings in large LETZs found no significant differences in thermal artifact. In the deep stroma, however, the blended setting had a thicker thermal artifact band (0.382 mm) than the pure cut setting (0.325 mm).34
Stratified Mucin-Producing Intraepithelial Lesion
Some intraepithelial lesions show features intermediate between HSIL (CIN) and cervical adenocarcinoma in situ (AIS)(also termed high-grade cervical glandular intraepithelial neoplasia) (see Chapter 12). Where mucin-producing cells are admixed with non-mucin-producing cells in an atypical stratified intraepithelial lesion, the term stratified mucin-producing intraepithelial lesion or SMILE has been proposed.35 This entity is uncommon36 and when observed is best diagnosed as a histologic variant of cervical AIS: ‘cervical adenocarcinoma in situ, stratified mucin-producing intraepithelial type.’ In many cases features of ‘pure’ AIS are also present in the histologic slides.
Miscellaneous Conditions
One of the more bizarre situations rarely encountered is when the cervix is treated for SIL (CIN), but the results of hysterectomy show the SIL (CIN) process involves more than the cervix. There are rare reported cases where hysterectomy and bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy performed to treat SIL (CIN) disclosed that the disease had extended to the endometrium and fallopian tubes, and there extensively replaced the normal glandular mucosa.37,38
Biomarkers
p16
The cyclin-dependent kinase 2A inhibitor, p16INK4, or simply p16, helps distinguish SIL (CIN) from reactive and atrophic lesions.39 Since a retinoblastoma protein (pRb)-dependent negative feedback loop regulates p16 expression, continuous inactivation of pRb by high-risk (but not low-risk) HPV E7 results in increased p16 levels. Hence, increased p16 levels may reflect HPV-induced SIL (CIN) with deregulated E7 expression.40 Marked overexpression of p16 protein, i.e., diffuse and strong immunostaining (Figure 10.49), is present in virtually all cervical squamous cell and adenocarcinomas, and high-grade squamous and glandular preinvasive lesions (HSIL (CIN) and AIS) infected by high-risk HPVs, e.g., types 16, 18, 31, 33, 52, and 58, in contrast to the weak/focal staining in lesions infected with HPV 6/11 or other low-risk HPVs.41 p16 overexpression is sensitive (84%) and specific (98%) for the detection of high-risk HPV.42 At low magnification, p16 staining facilitates finding a dysplastic area, especially if the epithelium is heavily infiltrated by leukocytes, as often occurs in SILs (CINs).39 In addition, overexpressed p16 helps identify individual SIL cells in fluid-based cytologic smears.43 This biomarker is particularly useful in the distinction between SIL (CIN) and reactive and atrophic epithelia, especially where the epithelium is thin (see earlier).
ProExC
More recently, immunostaining using ProExC, which detects the combination of minichromosome maintenance (MCM) protein 2 (MCM2) and topoisomerase 2α (TOPO2α), has been suggested as an alternative biomarker for the diagnosis of SIL (CIN). This performs well in some studies44 and there is some evidence that the combination of ProExC and p16 may be diagnostically useful.45
HPV Typing
There is a large amount of literature addressing the role of HPV testing in cervical screening, particularly the triage of women with low-grade cervical cytologic abnormalities,46 or during follow-up of patients with SIL (CIN),47 but the role of HPV typing in the assessment of biopsy material is limited. The detection of HPV DNA by in situ hybridization can aid the identification of HPV-associated carcinomas, particularly adenocarcinomas, and in the distinction between cervical and endometrial adenocarcinomas.48 However, its use in the assessment of SIL (CIN) is limited, particularly in view of the excellent performance of immunohistochemical biomarkers such as p16,25,49 which are more easily implemented in a routine laboratory context.
Histologic Features of SIL (CIN) Affecting Management and Prognosis
The specification of a biopsy-proven SIL (CIN) as low or high grade greatly influences management, with the former usually eliciting prospective surveillance and the latter ablative therapy. This was reaffirmed in the 2012 consensus recommendations by the College of American Pathologists and the American Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology.50 There is some controversy, however, regarding whether HSIL (CIN 2) should be managed differently from HSIL (CIN 3), especially in the younger patient. This is fueled by the observation that HSIL (CIN 2) is a less reproducible diagnosis than HSIL (CIN 3), with the implication that some proportion of HSIL (CIN 2) cases are low clinical risk lesions overdiagnosed by the pathologist.
Involvement of Endocervical Gland Crypts
Consideration of the involvement of endocervical gland crypts in addition to surface epithelium is important for patient management (Figures 10.50–10.52). The number and depth of involved crypts increases with the grade of SIL (CIN). In CIN 3 cone biopsy specimens, nearly 90% had involved crypts.51 The mean depth of involvement was 1.2 mm, but 5% extended deeper than 3 mm and some reached a depth of over 5.2 mm52 or even over 6 mm.
Figure 10.50 HSIL (CIN 3) with endocervical crypt involvement. Several crypts are only partially replaced; the endocervical mucosa remains intact. Where the HSIL (CIN 3) has entirely replaced the crypt, the smooth perimeter indicates that the lesion is in situ and has not invaded into the cervical stroma.
Figure 10.51 HSIL (CIN 3) with endocervical crypt involvement. The perimeter is smooth, indicating that the HSIL (CIN 3) is replacing the gland crypt rather than invading into the underlying stroma.
Figure 10.52 HSIL (CIN 3) with endocervical crypt involvement. Note the abrupt transition between the lesion and the adjacent normal endocervical epithelium.
Extreme care must be taken not to mistake crypt involvement for invasive carcinoma. When HSIL (CIN 2-3) involves only a portion of the crypt, thus exposing some of the lining composed of mucinous columnar cells, the correct diagnosis is usually obvious. Difficulties arise when SIL (CIN) replaces the crypts in their entirety, especially in a biopsy specimen. In this instance the clue that the disease process is not invasive carcinoma, but HSIL (CIN 2-3) that involves a crypt, lies with its shape. Crypts that are involved have perimeters that are round to oblong and smooth, reflecting the fact that the normal crypt lining has been replaced. Sometimes the crypt diameter may be expanded. The stroma around the crypt is often inflamed, and may be edematous, complicating assessment of the epithelial–stromal interface. Tumor that is invasive usually has irregular and sharply angulated borders, and frequently exhibits features of increased squamous differentiation (e.g., increased cytoplasmic eosinophilia, reduced nuclear to cytoplasmic ratio, dyskeratosis) by comparison with the overlying or adjacent SIL (CIN).
Resection Margins
Not infrequently, LEEP, LETZ, or cone biopsy specimens disclose HSIL (CIN 2-3) that reaches the resection margins either on the surface or in involved endocervical crypts (Figure 10.53), both of which may confer an increased risk of residual disease. Residual CIN has been detected in 8–85% of women with positive margins on cone biopsy and in 0–55% of women with negative margins.53 In a study of 782 women treated for CIN with large loop excision, 9% of margins were involved but, within 2 years, the treatment failure rate was 30%.54 With uninvolved margins, 5% of these patients proved still to have residual disease. Endocervical glandular involvement, age exceeding 40 years, and the presence of satellite lesions were all identified as independent risk factors for the appearance of a subsequent lesion. Among a cohort of 390 patients, 22% had recurrent CIN or developed invasive carcinoma after cold knife conization with positive margins. Persistent or recurrent disease was more common in women with both ectocervical and endocervical margin involvement as opposed to singular ectocervical or endocervical positive margins.55,56
Figure 10.53 HSIL (CIN 3) involving resection margins both on the surface and within endocervical crypts.
In another study, if an ECC was positive for CIN, 65% had CIN 2–3 in a cone biopsy.57 A retrospective study of 152 women who underwent ECC at the time of conization concluded that only the endocervical margin status predicted residual disease (and not ECC).58
In one study where hysterectomy was performed soon after the cone biopsy, 61% of patients who had both involved margins and involved crypts had residual CIN: 29% of women with uninvolved margins and crypts also had residual CIN in the hysterectomy specimen.59 In a second phase of the same investigation, women treated with cone biopsy alone were followed over a long period. Of women with both involved margins and involved crypts, 23% developed a subsequent recurrence, which compared to only 8% of women in whom both the margins and crypts were initially normal. The average time to the first recurrence was 2.2 years. In predicting recurrence, positive margins and involved crypts were each found to be independent prognostic factors with equal predictive value.
It is of note that margin status has been shown to be less sensitive than cytology or high-risk HPV testing in predicting post-treatment disease.60,61 In addition, a recent systematic review concluded that high-risk HPV testing had higher sensitivity than, but similar specificity to, cytology for the detection of post-treatment high-grade disease.47
With the knowledge that the status of the endocervical margin can have a substantial effect on immediate therapy and later disease progression, a lively debate has ensued over the years about the wisdom of using frozen sections to examine cone biopsy specimens.62 The consensus has been that complete examination of specimens by frozen section is less thorough than if the specimen is first fixed in formalin and then carefully blocked. It is the common experience that cone specimens cut into 12 or more pieces not infrequently show only a small focus of high-grade disease, which would easily have been missed by frozen section examination. In the example shown, the entire focus of HSIL (CIN 3) was under 1 mm in total size (Figure 10.54). Frozen-section examination of large specimens is also time-consuming and expensive. However, in those institutions where frozen-section evaluation of the endocervical margins is performed routinely, the overall experience has been highly satisfactory.63 A number of institution also report excellent correlation between the frozen sections and permanent sections in cases of CIN 364 and superficial invasive carcinoma.65 Yet the artifacts and tissue loss at frozen section can compromise the evaluation of early invasion. Furthermore, rarely will the astute gynecologist need to alter the approach based on the finding of superficial invasion. Hence, frozen-section evaluation of conization is generally discouraged.
Invasive Disease
An obvious concern in the management of SIL (CIN) is to ensure that the therapy is not excessive for the degree of abnormality present. Conversely, it is important not to treat lesions inadequately and miss an occult carcinoma as a result. In a meta-analysis examining the use of various diagnostic techniques, both punch biopsy and cone biopsy with or without colposcopy missed significant numbers of invasive carcinomas (Table 10.6).52
In one of the largest case series, 2.7% of 600 patients with CIN 3 had invasive carcinomas detected in a subsequent cone biopsy specimen.66 Another 1% had microinvasive carcinomas. The major features identified in CIN 3 associated with carcinoma in another study were as follows:31
• Extensive involvement of surface epithelium, often with multiquadrant disease
• Deep involvement of endocervical crypts by expansile CIN 3
One study has shown that the mean size of CIN 3 lesions exhibiting microinvasion is seven times greater than CIN 3 lesions without invasion and 100-fold greater than CIN 1 lesions.67 Several studies have shown that care must also be exercised to remove the entire lesion when locally destructive methods are used in the treatment of HSIL (CIN 2-3). In a multicenter retrospective study, the British Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology identified 49 women who subsequently developed invasive carcinoma following therapy with laser vaporization, cold coagulation, diathermy, or cryosurgery.68 Most of these tumors were ascribed to failure to recognize the early invasive disease at the time the patients were initially assessed. Fortunately, radical reoperation has been performed in such patients with low morbidity and excellent cure rates.69
Regression and Progression to Invasive Carcinoma
Regression
Practical data are difficult to find regarding the transit times from SIL (CIN) to invasive carcinoma. In one of the better older studies,70 the median transit times for progression from mild, moderate, and severe dysplasia to CIS were 5 years (58 months), 3 years (38 months), and 1 year (12 months), respectively. The regression rate for the high-grade abnormality reverting to normal was 6%, a lower number than anticipated, attributed to the fact that biopsies were not taken. It was believed that removing even a small piece of tissue from a field of dysplasia materially altered the disease’s natural history. In contrast, others found higher regression rates:71 50% of patients followed by cytology and biopsy experienced regression during the next 10 years. In the same interval, only 1.4% of all patients with dysplasia showed progression to CIS. In part the rates of progression and regression are related to the initial grade of the CIN, as shown by a meta-analysis of papers published since 1950 (Table 10.7).72,73
In a more recent study based on a historical cohort of women whose Pap smear histories were recorded continuously between 1962 and 1980, and during which time CIN was managed conservatively, both CIN 1 and CIN 2 were more likely to regress (usually within 2 years) than to progress. The risk of progression from CIN 1 to CIN 3 or worse was only 1% per year, but the risk of progression from CIN 2 was 16% within 2 years and 25% within 5 years, in agreement with meta-analyses.72 Most of the excess risk for carcinomas developing from CIN 2 or 3 occurred within the first 2 years after the initial cervical abnormality was identified.74
Progression
The goal of early treatment is to prevent squamous cell carcinoma by eradicating preinvasive lesions. Cervical screening programs to detect SIL (CIN) by cytology and treat during the preinvasive phase are based on two assumptions: (1) a significant proportion of women with SIL (CIN) would eventually develop invasive carcinoma if not treated and (2) most invasive squamous cell carcinomas are preceded by a demonstrable intraepithelial phase. Despite the fact that cervical screening is the most effective cancer preventive program currently available, total eradication has not been obtained. There are numerous reasons why this hope has not been fully realized, including poor coverage by the screening programs of the population most at risk, poor quality of screening, and the possibility that some invasive carcinomas may not be preceded by a demonstrable preinvasive phase. Even so, a woman who has been screened even once during her lifetime will have a nearly sixfold lower incidence rate of cervical cancer (decreasing from about 34 to 4.2/100,000 women-years).75
Several early studies provided insights into the relationship between SIL (CIN) and invasive carcinoma. One highly quoted study showed that 14% of 59 women whose CIS (now HSIL or CIN 3) remained untreated developed invasive carcinoma. It was later admitted that many of the original diagnoses were incorrect and that only 14 of the patients had acceptable CIS. Thus the percentage rose to 57%, i.e., 8 of 14 women developed invasive carcinoma over a period of 10 years. Later still, it was reported that 31 of these women had been followed for at least 12 years and that 22 (71%) of them had developed invasive disease.76 Other reports from that time were similar.77 Of 127 women with ‘epithelial atypia,’ 26% ultimately developed invasive carcinoma. In a fuller account of the same patients, it was admitted that only 67 had a recognizable abnormality still present at the end of the first year of follow-up. Of the 67 who remained in the series, two-thirds eventually developed invasive carcinoma. While the more recent amended rates are rarely quoted, they may well provide a more reliable indication of the malignant potential of SIL (CIN) than their earlier and more widely quoted figures. Most investigations have found that the time for progression from CIN 3 to occult invasive cancer takes between 5 and 25 years, with most series reporting times of over 10 years. Estimates of transit time from CIN to microinvasive/subclinical carcinoma are about 10 years with another 4–5 years elapsing until the tumor causes symptoms.78
These estimates are in accord with the average ages when women develop SIL (CIN) (25–40 years), microinvasive carcinoma (43 years), stage 1 squamous cell carcinoma (48 years), and stage 4 squamous cell carcinoma (58 years) (Figure 10.55).
Figure 10.55 Ages of occurrence of squamous cell carcinoma of the cervix and its precursor states. Mean ages are presented for each category.
A common issue in evaluating the natural progression of SIL (CIN) is the effect introduced by both biopsy and conization. The former can theoretically affect the diseased tissues that remain in place, while conization certainly can ablate all tissues, removing the entire lesion or even the entire transformation zone. To overcome the difficulty that the method of diagnosis may interfere with the natural history of the disease, 52 women were traced who had positive smears diagnosed at least 2 years previously but had had neither biopsies nor any treatment.79 Ten of these women (19%) developed invasive carcinoma, including some preclinical invasive carcinomas.
A notable study involved 948 women who had CIS diagnosed by histology, most of whom had cone biopsies.80,81 Of this group, 131 continued to have abnormal cytology, indicative of residual disease. No further treatment was given to these patients but they were followed closely. After 10 years 18% had developed invasive carcinoma, and after 20 years the number had risen to 36%. Of those whose cytology was normal after the initial treatment, 1.5% developed invasive carcinoma and 0.8% developed recurrent CIS. One explanation of the latter figures is that the propensity to develop new disease may remain where there is residual or new infection or other promoting factors (relative risk of 3.2). A retrospective study of 33 women revealed that the invasive carcinoma occurred within 5 and 10 years in 67% and 94% of women, respectively, after their CIN was treated.82
In examining the natural history of SIL (CIN) following conization, caution must be exercised in attributing the reappearance of an abnormality to the development of new disease. In one large study, 672 women were treated with conization for CIS and had resection margins free of tumor.66 Of this group, 4% had abnormal smears detected within 3 months and 5% within 1 year, suggesting that the original tumor had never been fully resected. Another 2.5% developed abnormal smears during the ensuing 2–6 years. In general, the recurrence rate and time of recurrence correlated strongly with the presence or absence of initial disease at the resection margins (Table 10.8).66
The second issue involves reports of young women developing invasive carcinoma of the cervix after recent prior negative cytology.26,83 Some of these lesions have been called rapidly progressive cancer, a condition discussed elsewhere (see Chapter 9). There are several explanations for these findings. Some of the smears were probably false negatives that would have been found to contain malignant cells or at least dyskaryotic/dysplastic cells on review. Others may have been genuine false negatives, in which either the cytologic sample was inadequate, the tumor was located high in the endocervical canal, or the tumor did not exfoliate cells and none were present in the smears.84 However, it is impossible to escape the conclusion that at least some of these women had true progression from normal histology to invasive carcinoma. This has occurred in a short period between the collection of the smear and the diagnosis of the carcinoma, sometimes in less than a year. It seems reasonable to speculate that, although the mean time interval for the progression through SIL (CIN) to invasive carcinoma may be 10–15 years, a few women will fall at the two extremes of the distribution curve of the length of natural history. Some may have such a long natural history that progression to invasion will never occur in the course of their lifetime; these women would be categorized as nonprogressive. On the other hand, there may be those women at the other extreme, in whom the natural history of the disease runs a very rapid course, measured in months rather than years. These may be the patients described in the previous reports. Indeed, very rarely do women under age 20 develop rapidly lethal invasive cancer. This hypothesis presumes that one disease process is occurring and that the difference in the behavior in different women is the result of extreme variations in the length of the natural history of the same disease. Another suggestion for which there are only scant data is that certain HPV types associated with cervical cancer are intrinsically associated with more rapid progression. This may correlate with the finding that HPV type 18 is rarely detected in cases of HSIL (CIN 2-3), but commonly in cervical cancers that have metastasized.85
Correlation between Cytology and Histology
Since the publication in 1987 by the Wall Street Journal about incorrectly read cytology smears, there has been increased awareness of quality and liability issues associated with the Pap smear. Substantial literature has accumulated since that time,86 one common theme of which has been the question of what constitutes an error or false-negative smear. While most false-negative rates are between 2% and 28%,87 the issue is often far more subtle. In evaluating these rates, it is important to understand what components are truly being measured. If a patient has cancer but the smear truly contains no abnormal cells, is this a false negative? Equally perplexing is the question of whether to include or exclude consideration of cells considered ASCUS; or those cells showing signs of HPV infection; or even LSIL itself.
A theme implicit in most articles is that histologic findings are always correct and therefore histology is the gold standard. While it is beyond the scope of this chapter to examine this subject in detail, several studies have shown convincingly that the findings in tissue biopsies and cervical smears are complementary.15 An abnormal finding by either modality should not be dismissed as artifact when not confirmed by the other. In a prospective examination of 3404 paired biopsies and cytologic smears, 481 paired cases (14%) had discordant diagnoses, defined as differing by more than one degree of CIN or as CIN or carcinoma identified by only one modality.84 Eighteen initial diagnostic differences arose from cytologic screening errors, 16 from interpretive errors by staff pathologists, and one from superficial initial histologic sections. Of these, 33 involved lesions with CIN 1. Only two involved high-grade CIN (0.06%); both smears initially interpreted as atrophy were in fact examples of CIN 3. Perhaps even this could have been prevented by routinely using additional biomarkers, such as Ki-67 and p16, in cases of ‘atrophic’ smears. The remaining examples of discordance resulted from sampling differences. The cytologic smear contained the diagnostic lesion in 40% of the cases and the surgical biopsy detected the remainder, emphasizing the utility of pairing these sampling techniques in patients at risk for SIL (CIN). Not infrequently, the discordant, but verified, finding of an abnormality on cytopathology alone led to re-examination of the patient and discovery of a preinvasive lesion somewhere in the endocervical canal. Clearly, if cytologic and histologic diagnoses are discordant but valid independently, then the diagnosis of the more advanced disease state should be favored for the purposes of patient safety.
Distribution and Site of Origin of SIL
There is recent evidence that cervical squamous neoplasia arises in most cases from a discrete group of cells in the squamocolumnar junction characterized by a gene expression profile that is conserved in SIL (CIN) and squamous cell carcinoma of the cervix.88 Uniquely expressed markers include cytokeratin 7, anterior gradient 2, cluster differentiation 63, matrix metalloproteinase 7, and guanine deaminase. HPV-related squamous lesions arising in the vagina and vulva lack this distinctive immunophenotype, suggesting that the cell of origin for most cervical SIL (CIN) is confined to the native cervical squamocolumnar junction. The cervical squamocolumnar junction is not static over time, rather it is moving in a cranial (uterine) direction through a process of endocervical encroachment by advancing squamous metaplasia. Recent demonstration that the immunophenotype is not regenerated during re-epithelization following ablation suggests that it might be permanently destroyed by topical ablation.
The region of endocervix swept by this migrating squamocolumnar junction, called the transformation zone, is an anatomic site that overlaps with, or encroaches upon, virtually all cervical SILs (CINs).89 Rare carcinomas found outside this zone, on the vaginal aspect of the cervix, more often are keratinizing, suggesting that these tumors have arisen from the basal layer of the original (native) squamous epithelium.
Most studies have shown that SILs (CINs) increase in size with the grade of the disease. CIN 3 lesions have an average linear extent of 6.3 mm and 65% of CIN 3 lesions involve two or more quadrants. Approximately 10–25% of lesions that arise in the transformation zone extend more than 1 cm into the endocervical canal. An occasional case may exceed 4 cm. In one study, nearly all lesions involved the anterior or posterior lips (94%), and fewer the lateral edges (38%),90 which affects how biopsies are taken.91 Other more recent studies have shown CIN 2–3 to be randomly distributed,92 or slightly more common posteriorly than anteriorly, but equally on the right and left sides of the cervix.93 Based on results from the ASCUS/LSIL Triage Study for Cervical Cancer (ALTS) studies, SIL (CIN) occurred more commonly on the anterior and posterior lips, but the data were confounded by the tendency for these areas to appear acetowhite even when HPV or CIN were not identified.94 Of course patient age and presenting morphology bias all of these measurements.
Colposcopy
Using these features a colposcopist can assess the extent of SIL (CIN) and identify an early invasive carcinoma, at the same time selecting the most appropriate sites for punch biopsy so that a precise histologic diagnosis may be made. Colposcopy also enables the lesional extent to be determined accurately. An atypical transformation zone may extend off the cervix into the vaginal fornices or even, very occasionally, some way down the vaginal walls.
The uses of colposcopy can be summarized as follows:
• To determine the extent and distribution of the lesion
• To select the sites for directed biopsy
Normal Colposcopic Findings
Original Squamous Epithelium
Normal original squamous epithelium presents a uniform, relatively featureless appearance with a smooth surface contour, which does not become white after the application of acetic acid (Figures 10.56 and 10.57). The vessels are usually inconspicuous and are mostly of hairpin type, showing one ascending and one descending branch of very fine caliber, forming a small loop. If the surface epithelium is thin, it is sometimes possible to observe the whole loop by colposcopy. Generally only the tip of the loop is visible, so that these hairpin capillaries are usually seen as regularly and densely arranged small dots.
Columnar Epithelium
Normal columnar epithelium is easily recognized by its characteristic grape-like or villous appearance. Before application of acetic acid, the colposcopist will see that each columnar epithelial villus contains a fine capillary. As the villus is covered by no more than a single layer of columnar cells, the blood in the capillary gives columnar epithelium its typically red appearance. Following application of acetic acid, the villi often appear white and swollen and are more easily recognizable (Figure 10.58).
Squamous Metaplasia
Mature Metaplasia
Fully mature, squamous epithelium of metaplastic origin exhibits gland openings and typical branching vessels (Figure 10.59). The surface contour resembles that of original squamous epithelium so that, in the absence of prominent branching vessels, gland openings, or retention cysts, distinction from original squamous epithelium may be impossible.
Immature Metaplasia
Immature or active metaplasia, which is epithelium that is in the process of being transformed from columnar to squamous, is difficult to fully evaluate colposcopically (Figure 10.60). The epithelium is often acetowhite and is easily confused with abnormal epithelium.
Figure 10.60 Squamous metaplasia. Original squamous epithelium is present on the right and the transverse, slit-like external os (black arrow) is seen on the left. Normal endocervical villi are present on the posterior lip (red arrow). There is an irregular crescent of maturing squamous metaplasia adjacent to the squamocolumnar junction (blue arrow), which is slightly acetowhite and shows gland openings (green arrows). On the anterior lip are diagonal columns of very immature metaplasia (white arrows) where the endocervical villi are fused.
Abnormal Colposcopic Findings
In SIL (CIN), one or more features of an atypical transformation zone would be expected (Table 10.9). Some of these features may also occur with entities other than SIL (CIN), e.g., immature squamous metaplasia, the normal transformation zone, and HPV infection.
Mosaic and Punctation
These are both patterns of the small blood vessels that arise in the stromal plexus beneath the epithelium and pass into the epithelium surrounded by a very sparse stromal core (Figure 10.61). If the vessels branch and anastomose, forming a basket-like pattern around epithelial blocks, a mosaic pattern results (Figures 10.62 and 10.63). On the other hand, if the vessel travels toward the surface and then turns back again without branching, a punctate pattern will be seen (Figures 10.64 and 10.65). The two patterns often coexist on the same cervix. The degree of histologic abnormality that the epithelium shows may be roughly predicted by the intercapillary distance, the coarseness of the vessels, and the regularity of the pattern. The greater the intercapillary distance, the coarser the vessels and more irregular the pattern, the more severe the histologic grade of SIL (CIN) is likely to be. However, it is wrong to believe that colposcopy itself is capable of making a precise histologic diagnosis of an epithelial abnormality.14 The final diagnosis must always be histologic.
Figure 10.62 Mosaic. The epithelium is acetowhite and there is a prominent abnormal vascular pattern of intercommunicating horizontal vessels just beneath the surface, giving rise to the mosaic appearance. Gland openings (arrows) are obvious. Biopsy showed HSIL (CIN 3).
Acetowhite Epithelium
Application of aqueous acetic acid (3–5%) to the cervix causes a color change when SIL (CIN) (or some of the other changes listed earlier) is present. The acetic acid has the effect of making the abnormal epithelium appear white and opaque, whiter than it was before the application of the acetic acid and whiter than the normal epithelium after the application of acetic acid (Figures 10.66 and 10.67). The whiteness, usually referred to as ‘acetowhite epithelium,’ is related to the amount of nuclear material present.
Figure 10.66 Acetowhite epithelium. A small area of abnormal epithelium is sharply defined after the application of acetic acid. Biopsy showed HSIL (CIN 3).
Figure 10.67 Acetowhite epithelium. The abnormal epithelium is apparently confined to the anterior lip. One area shows white, raised ‘asperities’ (black arrow) and ‘satellite’ lesions are present (white arrows). Both of these features suggest that HPV infection is present. Biopsy showed HSIL (CIN 3) with koilocytes.
Leukoplakia
Leukoplakia appears as a well-defined white area, often slightly raised and with a ‘waxy,’ shiny surface (Figure 10.68). It differs from acetowhite epithelium as it is white before acetic acid application and the acetic acid has no effect on its whiteness.
Atypical Vessels
Atypical vessels indicate the possibility of a more advanced abnormality, perhaps early invasive carcinoma. These atypical vessels are basically punctate or mosaic patterns, but turn and run a short way parallel to the surface of the epithelium, forming commas, spirals, and irregular shapes (Figures 10.61 and 10.69).
Figure 10.69 Atypical vessels. This extensive atypical transformation zone is markedly acetowhite and shows a vascular pattern on the posterior lip that is basically a mosaic. In places (arrow) the mosaic pattern has broken and there are small, irregular, comma-shaped vessels running parallel to the surface. The surface contour is slightly nodular. These features suggest that the lesion may be more advanced than an SIL (CIN). Biopsy showed microinvasive squamous carcinoma.
Suspect Frank Invasive Carcinoma
This term refers to cases where a preclinical invasive carcinoma is present, usually larger than microinvasive carcinoma. The surface contour is irregular and nodular. There is intense acetowhiteness and coarse, bizarre, and irregular vessels (Figure 10.70).
Congenital Transformation Zone
This type of transformation zone may develop during intrauterine life, or later but prior to sexual activity, and is not associated with an increased risk of neoplastic change. It is colposcopically significant as it shares some features with SIL (CIN). The epithelium is acetowhite, has a fine mosaic pattern, and is either nonglycogenated or patchily and partially glycogenated. The histologic appearances were discussed previously and are illustrated in Chapter 8.
Other Colposcopic Findings
Acuminate Warts
Colposcopy can identify condylomata acuminata (Figure 10.71), which need to be distinguished from invasive carcinoma, because both show nodularity of the surface contour and prominent vasculature. Biopsy of suspected condylomata is mandatory for this reason.
Glandular Lesions
AIS (high-grade cervical glandular intraepithelial neoplasia) and invasive adenocarcinoma may show colposcopic abnormalities (Figure 10.72), but distinction from squamous lesions is not usually possible. Moreover, glandular lesions are often not colposcopically visible, necessitating LEEP, LETZ, or cone biopsy to investigate a cervical smear containing abnormal glandular epithelial cells with features suggesting a neoplastic glandular lesion.
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