Indications

The primary indications for tracheal suctioning are to remove secretions, enhance oxygenation, or obtain samples of lower respiratory tract secretions for diagnostic tests. In the ED, tracheal suctioning should be performed to enhance oxygenation in any tracheostomy patient in respiratory distress. In addition, tracheal suctioning should be performed when the patient has coarse rales, rhonchi, or tubular breath sounds; acute or worsening dyspnea; or arterial oxygen desaturation. It is important to emphasize that tracheal suctioning should be performed only when it is clinically indicated; frequent, routine suctioning is not recommended.18,19

There are no absolute contraindications to tracheal suctioning. Relative contraindications include severe bronchospasm, which may worsen with suctioning, and persistently elevated intracranial pressure (ICP), which is exacerbated by suctioning.²⁰ Bronchodilators, sedatives, and paralytics may alleviate these symptoms. Tracheal suctioning should be undertaken with caution in patients with cardiovascular instability because of an increased risk for associated dysrhythmias.²¹

Equipment

A suction catheter and vacuum system, open or closed, is required to perform tracheal suctioning (Fig. 7-5). It is recommended that the diameter of the suction catheter be no larger than half the inner diameter of the tracheostomy tube.^22,23 The size of the suction catheter in French gauge (Fg) can be calculated as follows:

For example, a 7-0 tracheostomy tube will require a 10-Fg suction catheter because 2 × (7 − 2) = 10 Fg. If the catheter is too small, it will not remove excess secretions adequately. If the catheter is too large, it can obstruct airflow during insertion and cause alveolar collapse with resultant hypoxemia.

In adults, the suction catheter should be inserted only 10 to 15 cm, depending on the length of the tracheostomy tube. The goal of suctioning is to remove secretions only from the proximal airways. Shallow suctioning occurs when the catheter is placed just beyond the hub of the tracheostomy tube to remove proximal secretions. Premeasured suctioning occurs when a catheter is inserted such that the distal side ports are beyond the caudal end of the tracheostomy tube. Deep suctioning occurs when the suction catheter is advanced until resistance is met. It is used for clearing excess secretions in the lower airways.¹⁹ Deep suctioning has not been shown to be more beneficial than shallow suctioning and should not be performed routinely because it might damage the mucosal epithelium and lead to an increase in granulation tissue.^24,25

A number of suction catheter tips have been designed to maximize removal of secretions without causing mucosal injury. Tips may have a single or multiple side ports proximal to the distal tip. Directional or Coude tip catheters are available for selective suctioning of the main stem bronchi.

A closed-system airway encases a suction catheter in a sterile sheath attached to ventilator tubing. This prevents the suction catheter from being contaminated by contact with the outside environment and allows tracheal suctioning to be performed without interrupting ventilatory support. The vacuum should be set to the lowest possible pressure to reduce atelectasis. Vacuum pressure should not exceed 80 mm Hg in infants or 150 mm Hg in adults.²²

Procedure and Technique

Before tracheal suctioning, continuous pulse oximetry, cardiac monitoring, and continuous capnography, if available, should be initiated (Fig. 7-6, step 1). Awake and alert patients should be sitting upright with their head in a neutral position. For mechanically ventilated patients, the head of the bed should be elevated to 30 degrees to improve respiratory mechanics. Aseptic technique should be used throughout all suctioning procedures to prevent the introduction of bacteria. Backup airway equipment should be readily available (see Fig. 7-2). Preoxygenate the patient for at least 30 to 60 seconds. For mechanically ventilated patients, increase the fraction of inspired oxygen (Fio₂) to 100%. For nonventilated patients, provide 10 to 15 L of high-flow oxygen. Humidify the air before suctioning to reduce the viscosity of respiratory secretions. Routine instillation of normal saline has not been shown to provide regular clinical benefit and is no longer recommended.^22,26

Once the patient has been adequately preoxygenated, insert the suction catheter through the inner cannula in situ (Fig. 7-6, step 2). If the carina is irritated during deep suctioning, a vigorous cough reflex will be activated. After reaching the desired depth, withdraw the suction catheter 1 to 2 cm and then apply suction while slowly removing the catheter (Fig. 7-6, steps 3 and 4). Gently rotate the catheter as it is withdrawn to facilitate removal of secretions. The duration of suctioning should not exceed 10 to 15 seconds.²⁷

Monitor the patient throughout the procedure for signs of cardiac dysrhythmia, hypoxia, or a rise in end-tidal CO₂. Immediately stop suctioning if any of these signs develop (see “Complications of Suctioning”). If marked respiratory distress is presumed to be secondary to significant tracheal obstruction, continue with expeditious suctioning to remove the obstruction (see “Obstruction and Complications from Tube Changes”).

Complications of Suctioning

Complications that occur during or after suctioning are relatively common and can result in significant morbidity. Fortunately, most complications can be anticipated and simple maneuvers can reduce their incidence and severity.

Hypoxemia from suctioning may cause increased ICP, dysrhythmias, or even death. In neonates, hypoxia during suctioning may contribute to spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage.²⁸ A number of factors contribute to suctioning-related hypoxia, including interruption of mechanical ventilation, aspiration of air from the respiratory tract, and suctioning-related atelectasis.²⁹ Use in-line suction catheters for ventilator-dependent patients to allow continuous oxygen delivery and positive pressure ventilation. Select the catheter size carefully to reduce the evacuation of airway gases during suctioning and help prevent atelectasis. Limit the duration of suctioning to 10 to 15 seconds and perform no more than three passes in succession. Measurement of arterial oxygen saturation may not be sufficient to assess hypoxia after suctioning. Oxygen consumption increases during suctioning despite insignificant changes in oxygen saturation. This increase in oxygen consumption is more prevalent in patients who possess a vigorous cough, are agitated, or resist suctioning.³⁰

Dysrhythmias associated with suctioning may be caused by hypoxia, increased myocardial oxygen consumption, vagal stimulation, hypoventilation, or catecholamine release. Vagal stimulation caused by suctioning can cause bradycardia and hypotension.³¹ Bradycardia in the setting of hypoxia potentiates ventricular dysrhythmias, including ventricular fibrillation. Nebulized or intravenous atropine is recommended for bradycardia and can be used as pretreatment in patients at risk for bradycardia, particularly infants. Digoxin enhances vagal activity and may potentiate the vagal stimulation of ET suctioning.³² Sympathetic stimulation may occur as a result of hypoxia, pain, or stress of the procedure. Pain medications, anxiolytics, and preparation of the patient for the procedure may blunt the sympathetic response. Suctioning should be stopped immediately if a dysrhythmia develops.

Increases in ICP during suctioning are well documented.33–35 ET suctioning can induce a strong cough reflex, which is thought to contribute to the increased ICP by raising intrathoracic pressure, reducing cerebral perfusion pressure, and increasing systemic blood pressure. In susceptible patients, increases in ICP can lead to devastating outcomes.^28,34,36 If there is concern that increases in ICP could harm the patient, several preventive steps should be taken before initiating ET suctioning. The most important interventions are providing adequate sedation and maximizing oxygenation.²⁰ Hyperventilation before and between passes of the suction catheter can transiently lower ICP by reducing systemic CO₂.³⁴ One minute before suctioning, hyperventilate the patient by increasing the respiratory rate to approximately 30 breaths/min. If not heavily sedated, most patients will cough vigorously when suctioned. Lidocaine can be instilled into the trachea to blunt the cough reflex, thereby preventing an increase in ICP. To anesthetize the trachea locally, instill 1.5 to 2.0 mg/kg of 2% lidocaine into the tracheal tube. After administering the medication, prepare the patient for suctioning by ensuring that sedation and oxygenation are adequate. After 10 minutes to allow the lidocaine to produce its local effect, begin tracheal suctioning. This method has been shown to prevent increases in ICP and changes in cerebral hemodynamics.³⁷

Atelectasis can occur when airway gases are suctioned too rapidly. To reduce this complication, choose a suction catheter that is less than half the inner diameter of the tracheostomy tube and minimize the duration and suction pressure. Atelectasis can be minimized by using a closed suction system and providing positive end-expiratory pressure after suctioning.³⁸ Hyperventilation should not be performed routinely to resolve suction-related atelectasis.²⁹

Mucosal injury is a common complication of tracheal suctioning. Invagination of the mucosa into the side ports of the catheter occurs during suctioning and causes the tracheal mucosa to become denuded, edematous, and predisposed to bleeding. Mucosal damage also interferes with mucociliary transport. Tracheitis can occur as a result of frequent or improperly performed suctioning.

Minitracheostomy Suctioning Procedure

The minitracheostomy (“minitrach”) was designed to improve tracheal hygiene in patients with intact cough reflexes, normal ventilatory function, and vocalization. The minitrach serves as a small port solely for suctioning secretions. Commonly, a 4-mm indwelling cuffless cannula is inserted through the cricothyroid membrane into the trachea. Patients who are suctioned through a minitrach are at lower risk for gagging and aspiration because they are able to maintain laryngeal and glottic function.³⁹ The minitrach device is seldom used in children because they have smaller airway diameters.

The technique used to suction through a minitrach is the same as that for tracheal suctioning. The smaller port size may require that smaller catheters be used. Most patients with minitrachs are decannulated before discharge from the ICU and are rarely seen in EDs.

Indications

Maturation of the tracheostomy tract is generally completed by postoperative day 7.⁴⁰ Most ED patients with a tracheostomy are seen after the stomal tract has matured, so routine changes of the tracheostomy tube can be done safely in the ED.⁴¹ Indications for exchange of the tracheostomy tube include cuff rupture or leak, leakage around the tube caused by tracheomalacia, other changes in tracheal anatomy, complete or partial tube occlusion, and conversion to an alternative tube style.⁴² There are no absolute contraindications to exchanging a tracheostomy tube in the ED as long as the stomal tract has matured. Before undertaking the exchange, consider whether further tissue trauma or hemorrhage might occur as a result of it⁴² or whether anatomic abnormalities could make the exchange difficult.

There is conflicting evidence on how frequently tracheostomy tubes should be changed.⁴³ Do not perform tube changes on a predetermined schedule, but rather as the patient’s clinical condition dictates. There is some evidence that tubes left in place longer than 3 months are at higher risk for infection.⁴⁴ Most manufacturers recommend that tracheostomy tubes be changed about 30 days after placement.

Equipment

When changing a tracheostomy tube, familiarize yourself with the resources and equipment available in the ED. Keep the equipment readily available, if not at the patient’s bedside. The necessary equipment is depicted in Figure 7-2.

Tracheostomy tubes may be made from metal or other synthetic material such as plastic. Plastic tubes are either polyvinyl chloride, which softens at body temperature, or silicon, which is naturally soft and unaffected by temperature. Metal tubes are constructed of silver or stainless steel and lack both a cuff and a 15-mm connector for attachment to a ventilator or Ambu bag.

Sizing

To determine the appropriate size of tube, consider the internal diameter (ID), outside diameter (OD), length, and curvature of the tube. The Chevalier Jackson sizing system indicates the length and tapering of the OD. This sizing method applies to metal tubes and most Shiley dual-cannula tracheostomy tubes. Table 7-1 lists common tracheostomy tubes and their dimensions. For dual-cannula tracheostomy tubes, the inner cannula has a 15-mm connection for a ventilator. Note that tracheostomy tubes with the same ID can have very different ODs and lengths. Consider the pretracheal distance before selecting a replacement tube of the appropriate size for obese patients (see “Special Populations”).

Single-cannula tracheostomy tubes are sized by the ID of the tube at its smallest dimension. The size of the tube is usually stamped on the flange. Before changing a tube, have the appropriate size of tube at the bedside along with tubes that are one or two sizes smaller. As a rule of thumb, most women can accommodate a tube with an OD of 10 mm, and most men can accommodate a tube with an OD of 11 mm.⁴⁵ Table 7-1 lists the recommended sizes of tracheostomy tubes.

Components

Most tracheostomy tubes have three standard components: an outer cannula, an obturator, and an inner cannula (Fig. 7-3A). The outer cannula is the permanent portion of the tracheostomy tube and should not be removed unless complications arise or a tube change is needed. Attached to the outer cannula is a flange on either side with eyelets used to tether the tube to the patient’s neck. The obturator is a white rounded or cone-shaped object that is used to facilitate insertion of the tube. When inserted into the outer cannula, it extends several millimeters beyond the distal end of the tube.

Tracheostomy tubes can be cuffed or uncuffed. Cuffed tracheostomy tubes are used for patients on long-term mechanical ventilation and those at risk for aspiration. Cuffed tubes also prevent loss of volume during positive pressure ventilation while preventing air leaks across the vocal cords. As a result, speech is not possible for patients with a cuffed tube. Most tubes have a high-volume, low-pressure cuff that reduces mucosal injury and the risk for tracheal erosion or stenosis.⁴⁶ Low-volume, low-pressure cuffs may be more effective in preventing aspiration.^47,48 Inflate the tracheostomy cuff and deflate it by attaching a syringe to the Luer-Lok port at the proximal end of the pilot balloon and either injecting or removing approximately 10 mL of air. Determine cuff pressure by connecting the Luer-Lok port to a handheld manometer.

Uncuffed and metal tubes are used in patients with adequate ventilatory effort who are alert and at low risk for aspiration. Depending on the size of the tracheostomy tube and how much of the tracheal diameter is filled by the tube itself, the patient may be able to speak. Air must be able to bypass the tube and be transmitted across the vocal cords. Digital occlusion of the tracheostomy tube or the use of specialized speaking valves can occlude expired air from the tracheostomy and facilitate voice production. Fenestrated tubes also allow air to be transmitted across the vocal cords. The fenestrations are generally located at the superior, posterior arch of the tube but can also be found on the inner cannula in some models.

During weaning from tracheostomy, tracheal buttons can be used to maintain patency of the stoma in patients who do not require mechanical ventilation. They can be retained permanently if decannulation is not possible. Tracheal buttons have a hollow outer cannula and a solid inner cannula and extend from the outer skin into the tracheal lumen. Tracheal buttons can become displaced into the tracheal lumen if it is not tethered correctly and may become clogged with secretions.⁴⁹ They may also have a speaking valve, such as the Passy-Muir (Passy-Muir, Inc., Irvine, CA) or the Shiley Phonate (Mallinckrodt Medical, St. Louis). These devices generally clip or twist onto the 15-mm coupling of the tracheostomy tube or inner cannula. Remove the speaking valve before changing the tracheostomy tube.

Procedure

As discussed previously, it is essential to ensure that all airway equipment is at the patient’s bedside before performing the tube exchange. In addition to having airway equipment ready, place the patient on continuous pulse oximetry, cardiac monitoring, and capnography, if available, to confirm tube placement. Identify the tracheostomy tube model and determine its size. Have this size and two other tubes that are one or two sizes smaller in the event that tube replacement is difficult. Inspect all equipment for proper function, including the replacement tube cuff for leaks and the obturator for ease of insertion and removal (Fig. 7-7, step 1). Coat the replacement tracheostomy tube with a water-based lubricant (Fig. 7-7, step 2).

Place the patient in a semirecumbent position with the neck slightly extended to ensure proper alignment of the external stoma and the tracheostomy tract. Do not flex the neck because this may misalign the tissues and make tube replacement more difficult. Remove the old tracheostomy dressing and clean the stomal site. If awake, preoxygenate the patient by placing a non-rebreather oxygen mask over the tracheostomy site for 3 minutes and then suction the oropharynx. If the patient is ventilator dependent, increase the Fio₂ to 100% for at least 1 minute before beginning the tube exchange to ensure adequate oxygenation. If needed, provide the patient with soft restraints or anxiolytic medication to improve compliance.

The tracheostomy tube can be changed by either of two methods. If the tracheostomy tract is well matured, the tube can be exchanged with an obturator. To remove the old tracheostomy tube, first deflate the cuff completely (if present) (Fig. 7-7, step 3). Remove the existing tube with an “out-then-down” movement while the patient exhales (Fig. 7-7, step 4). Next, with the obturator in place, insert the new tube into the stoma at a 90-degree angle to the cervical axis (Fig. 7-7, step 5). If two experienced providers are available, one can be responsible for deflating the cuff and removing the old tube while the other inserts the new device.⁵⁰ Next, gently push the tube downward in a fluid, sweeping motion so the external flange is flush against the neck. If necessary, use a tracheal hook to hold the stoma open. Remove the solid obturator immediately, insert the hollow internal cannula, inflate the cuff, return the patient’s head to the neutral position, and secure the external flange (Fig. 7-7, steps 6 to 8).

The second technique involves exchanging the tube with a modified Seldinger technique using a red rubber catheter, nasogastric tube, or a gum elastic bougie (Fig. 7-8).^45,51 This technique is preferable if the tracheostomy tract is not well defined or if there is concern that tube exchange could be difficult. To exchange tubes with this method, first premeasure the distance needed to extend the guidewire device beyond the distal tip of the old tracheostomy tube. Advance the guide to the premeasured distance, deflate the cuff, and remove the tube as described previously. Next, without the obturator in place, advance the new device over the guide until it is seated securely in the trachea. Remove the guide and secure the new tube. Weinmann and Bander developed a modified Seldinger technique involving the use of an airway exchange catheter to allow jet or bag ventilation into the trachea during tube exchange. This adjunct delivers intratracheal oxygen and is helpful if hypoxemia is likely to occur.⁴²

Confirm proper placement of the tube within the trachea with one of several possible techniques. Traditionally, the patient is ventilated and correct tube placement confirmed by observation of equal chest rise and auscultation of bilateral breath sounds. Although both signs are important to confirm correct placement, quantitative waveform capnography is now a class I American Heart Association recommendation for confirmation of ET intubation.⁵² It should be used for tracheostomy tube placement, if available. Multiple studies have shown quantitative capnography to be a highly sensitive tool for confirming correct placement of airway devices.^53,54 Correct tube placement can also be confirmed by direct visualization of the tracheal rings with a fiberoptic scope.

Obstruction and Complications from Tube Changes

Obstruction of the tracheostomy tube is a common complication and can occur at the external opening of the tube, within the inner cannula, or at the distal end of the outer cannula. In one review, 30% of ED visits for respiratory distress were due to an obstructed tube.⁴¹ Obstruction is caused most commonly by dried respiratory secretions and, less often, by blood, aspirated material, or granulation tissue. The obstructing object may act as a ball valve and allow air to enter but restricts expiration.⁸ Such obstruction is easily remedied in the ED by removing the inner cannula and then cleaning and replacing it.

Dislodgment

Displacement of the tracheal tube is a serious complication that can have a disastrous outcome if not recognized and corrected quickly. Patients at highest risk for poor outcomes from a dislodged tube are those who are obese, who have a recently inserted or changed tube, who have anatomic anomalies, and who are difficult to ventilate or were difficult to intubate in the past.56–58 Evidence of tube dislodgment is usually obvious. Signs and symptoms include hypoxemia, agitation, respiratory distress, altered mental status, subcutaneous emphysema, and high airway pressure. Dislodgement can occur during patient transfers, when traction is placed on the tube, or when the tube is manipulated for bag-valve-mask ventilation or ventilator tube connection. If a tracheostomy tube is too long, it can become dislodged inferiorly, which causes the tip to either abut the mucosal wall of the trachea or obstruct it at the level of the carina.

It is important to know when and why the tracheostomy was placed because such information will influence evaluation and management of the patient.⁵⁹ If a tracheostomy tube becomes dislodged within the first 7 days after initial placement, the stoma can close rapidly and make reinsertion difficult. Blind, forceful attempts at reinsertion of the tracheostomy tube in the early postoperative period can result in the creation of a false passage and possible respiratory arrest. If accidental decannulation occurs before the tract has time to form, orotracheal intubation is the safest approach in the ED. Reinsertion of the tracheostomy tube is possible, but the patient will most likely require ET intubation to secure the airway.⁵⁹ Patients with abnormal neck anatomy or other causes of a “difficult airway” may not benefit from reinsertion in the ED. In these cases, the procedure may need to be performed in the operating room. Seek emergency surgical consultation for complicated cases.

False Passage

A false lumen can be created during replacement of a tracheal tube or during repositioning of a dislodged tube. Obese patients are at high risk for false passage because of their redundant neck tissue (see “Special Populations”). Subcutaneous air, crepitus, or distortion of anterior neck landmarks may indicate placement of the tracheostomy tube into a false passage. Absence of a waveform on capnography confirms misplacement of the tracheostomy tube. Abdominal distention after bag-valve-mask ventilation may indicate placement of the tracheal tube through a tracheoesophageal fistula (TEF). If a false passage is suspected, remove and replace the tracheostomy tube expeditiously.

Equipment Failure

Infection

Patients who require long-term tracheostomy and mechanical ventilation are at high risk for nosocomial pneumonia, ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP), and tracheobronchitis. In general, the frequency of infection increases with the duration of mechanical ventilation, but the risk for infection is highest in the first week following intubation. Nonventilated tracheostomy patients are also at increased risk for pneumonia, tracheobronchitis, stomal infections, and other soft tissue infections.

Risk factors for systemic infection include impairment of host defenses and exposure to large numbers of bacteria that bypass the upper airway defense systems. In healthy patients, the upper respiratory tract is colonized by normal oropharyngeal flora. In tracheostomy patients, the normal flora can be replaced by virulent pathogens such as enteric gram-negative bacteria.⁶⁴ The organisms most commonly cultured from tracheostomy stomas and tubes are Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter, and Staphylococcus aureus.⁶⁵ Colonization rates are high in these patients, even in the absence of systemic infection. The tracheostomy tube bypasses the natural protective barriers of the upper airway. Suctioning a colonized tracheostomy tube can introduce bacteria into the lower respiratory tract. Underlying medical conditions, prolonged hospitalization, impaired host defense mechanisms, and poor nutrition all increase susceptibility to infection.

Ventilator-associated tracheobronchitis (VAT) is the result of colonization of the upper airway and can eventually progress to VAP.⁶⁶ Patients with VAT have fever, production of purulent sputum, and positive respiratory cultures but no evidence of a new infiltrate on chest radiography.⁶⁶ VAT is frequently caused by multidrug-resistant organisms. Therefore, when choosing antimicrobial therapy, consider recent hospitalizations, previous infections, recent antibiotic use, and the hospital’s antibiogram.

Tracheostomy patients on long-term ventilation are also at risk for VAP. These patients are similar to those with VAT, except that they have an infiltrate on chest radiography. A common cause of VAP is aspiration. Patients become predisposed to aspiration if they have altered neurologic function, have an abnormal swallowing mechanism, or are mechanically ventilated and kept in the supine position for a prolonged time. Some degree of aspiration occurs in 33% to 61% of all patients with tracheostomies.67,68 To reduce the risk for aspiration, keep patients requiring mechanical ventilation in a semirecumbent position. It is generally recommended that 30 to 45 degrees is adequate to reduce the risk for VAP.^69–71

Stomal infections and cellulitis are also common.⁴¹ The bacteria cultured most frequently from patients with tracheostomy-related cellulitis are S. aureus, Pseudomonas species, and Monilia. Consider Candida albicans infection in patients previously treated with antibiotics and those who have an underlying immunocompromised state. Peristomal cellulitis can usually be treated with good wound care and oral antibiotics. The most dangerous complications from cellulitis are mediastinitis, mediastinal abscess, necrotizing fasciitis, and paratracheal abscess. Consider these complications in patients who have pain with breathing, pain with swallowing, or signs of systemic infection. Strongly consider a deep neck infection in diabetic patients.⁷² β-Hemolytic streptococci or coagulase-positive staphylococci are the cause in 90% of patients with craniocervical necrotizing fasciitis.⁷³ Sputum samples, obtained via tracheal suctioning, should be analyzed when infectious complications are suspected. Radiologic studies, namely, a chest radiograph, cervical computed tomography (CT), and chest CT, should be ordered as indicated.

Antimicrobial treatment in the ED should cover the most common organisms for the suspected site of tracheostomy-related infection. Broad-spectrum systemic antimicrobials, along with adjuvant aerosol therapy, should be given urgently to high-risk patients.⁷⁴ Depending on the patient’s condition, surgical evaluation may be needed.⁴¹

Tracheal Stenosis and Tracheomalacia

Tracheal stenosis and tracheomalacia are late complications of a tracheostomy, often occurring weeks to months after decannulation. Its overall incidence is unknown, but clinically significant stenosis has been estimated to develop in 10% of all tracheostomy patients.⁷⁵ Tracheal stenosis occurs most often at the level of the stoma but can develop proximal (suprastomal) or distal to the stoma as a result of a poorly fitting tube or cuff. Pressure on the tracheal lumen from the tube or cuff can cause epithelial destruction, tracheitis, ulceration, persistent inflammation, and subsequent stenosis. Stenosis at the stoma can occur from rigid tube systems with excessive motion and pressure points.¹⁶ Symptoms become evident when the tracheal diameter is narrowed by 50% to 60%.⁷⁶ Stridor typically occurs when the tracheal lumen is narrower than 5 mm.¹⁶ Respiratory symptoms such as cough, retained secretions, and progressive dyspnea with exertion are indications of clinically significant stenosis.

Tracheomalacia is weakening of the tracheal cartilage from pressure necrosis and results in luminal widening. A loose tracheostomy tube with excessive mobility can cause air leaks or tracheal collapse (Fig. 7-10). Patients with significant tracheomalacia experience tracheal collapse on expiration. This can result in air trapping and retained respiratory secretions. Pediatric patients are less able to tolerate cartilaginous weakening and tracheomalacia.

Tracheoesophageal Fistula

TEF is an uncommon, late complication of tracheostomy. It occurs in 1% of tracheostomy patients as a result of injury to the posterior tracheal wall.⁷⁷ Early TEF can occur if a puncture wound or small laceration is made in the anterior esophageal wall during placement of the tracheostomy. The most common cause of a TEF is a poorly fitted tracheostomy tube or an overinflated cuff.⁷⁷ Injury to the esophageal mucosa from a nasogastric or orogastric tube can also cause a TEF.

Most patients with a TEF have increased secretions, recurrent pneumonia, or aspiration of gastric contents while receiving mechanical ventilation. The most frequent sign of a TEF is cough after swallowing. A persistent cuff leak or abdominal distention may also indicate a TEF. The clinician may be able to auscultate breath sounds over the lung fields and the epigastrium simultaneously, but this finding is unreliable. Bronchoscopy, barium esophagography, or mediastinal CT can aid in making the diagnosis.

Bleeding

Complications

Operative and immediate postoperative complications of TEP are infrequent.⁸⁴ Long-term complications include stomal stenosis, aspiration of the prosthesis, fistula leakage, TEP necrosis, and swallowing impairment. Reported infectious complications associated with TEP include deep neck abscess, aspiration pneumonia, and cervical cellulitis.⁸⁵

The emergency care provider should be aware of the most common complications, few of which are life-threatening. Accumulation of thick or inspissated secretions or food above the TEP can cause upper airway obstruction. Prosthesis dislodgment, occlusion, or erosion secondary to infection should be considered in all patients with acute changes in voice production or decreased ability to speak.⁸⁶ Esophageal edema causing dysphagia and loss of TEP speech has been reported and should be differentiated from other causes of esophageal obstruction.⁸⁶

When evaluating patients with a TEP, review the medical records, assess airway and esophageal patency, and determine whether the patient has experienced changes or difficulty in voice production. In stable patients, management of prosthesis complications should be referred to a specialist, most commonly an otolaryngologist.

Interventions

If obstruction is suspected while the patient is in the ED, clean and replace the catheter. If the stoma tract has not healed or appears to be infected, change the catheter via a modified Seldinger technique. Use a water-soluble lubricant for the catheter change. If changing the catheter does not relieve the obstruction and the patient’s airway is intact, encourage the patient to perform maneuvers that raise intrathoracic pressure to increase the force of the cough. Ask the patient to sit upright, hold a pillow to the abdomen, and cough forcefully after three deep inspirations. This maneuver may help mobilize secretions or small mucus plugs in the airway. Dyspnea and coughing should lessen with effective removal of the obstruction.

Manage minor bleeding at the catheter site with gauze packing or cauterization. If significant bleeding is identified or suspected, consult a specialist on an emergency basis and manage the airway definitively as clinically indicated (see the section ”Major Bleeding”). Manage skin and pulmonary infections with the techniques discussed for tracheostomy care.

Obese Patients

The prevalence of obesity (body mass index [BMI] ≥30) and morbid obesity (BMI ≥40) has increased dramatically over the past few decades.98,99 Obesity increases the patient’s risk for cardiovascular and metabolic comorbidity, and obese patients have a higher risk for ventilatory dysfunction secondary to altered respiratory mechanics.¹⁰⁰ Lung compliance, functional residual capacity, and expiratory reserve volume in an obese patient are reduced exponentially in relation to BMI.^101,102 As weight increases, vital capacity and total lung capacity decrease.¹⁰¹ Ultimately, obese patients have decreased pulmonary reserve, which can cause a rapid onset of hypoxia if they become critically ill.

Morbidly obese patients are particularly at risk for life-threatening complications related to tracheostomy.¹⁰³ Tube obstruction and accidental dislodgement appear to be more common in obese patients. Dislodgement is specifically associated with increased rates of morbidity and mortality.⁵⁸ Delayed recognition of tube dislodgment because of abnormal neck anatomy accounts for nearly 30% of tracheostomy-related deaths in the obese population.^58,103

Pediatrics

Most considerations for pediatric patients follow adult guidelines and are discussed in the appropriate sections of this chapter, but some specific considerations should be mentioned. The tracheostomy-related mortality rate in pediatric patients ranges from 0.5% to 6%.¹⁰⁵ The main causes of death are accidental dislodgement and obstruction of the tracheostomy tube.¹⁰⁶ Complication rates are highest in patients requiring tracheostomy for airway obstruction. In comparison, patients with central nervous system disorders, respiratory distress syndrome, and congenital heart disorders are less likely to experience complications.²⁴

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