CHAPTER 9 Postoperative care
Routine Postoperative Care
Bladder care
In women undergoing major gynaecological surgery, a urinary catheter is usually inserted just before the operation to keep the bladder empty throughout the procedure. This helps to minimize the risk of bladder injury and allows good access to the surgical field. Post operatively, the catheter is kept in place during the acute recovery phase for the patient’s comfort, to allow monitoring of urine output and to avoid urinary retention due to the general anaesthetic or pain. The catheter should be removed as soon as the patient is able to mobilize and void comfortably. Early removal of the catheter is important as prolonged catheterization may be associated with an increased risk of urinary tract infection (Schiøtz and Tanbo 2006). In patients who sustained a bladder injury during surgery, the catheter should be kept for 7–10 days to allow full healing of the bladder wall, and many gynaecologists would perform a systogram prior to removing the catheter.
Postoperative voiding difficulty is a common problem in gynaecological surgery, especially following bladder neck operations, and can be due to spasm, oedema or tenderness of parauretheral tissue. It is also common following radical hysterectomy due to extensive perivesical dissection that interferes with the nerve and blood supply to the bladder. Other contributing factors include cystitis and psychogenic factors. Failure to pass urine could also occur as a result of regional anaesthesia (which may cause bladder overdistension and atony) and abdominal pain, which may inhibit the initial voluntary phase of voiding. Following bladder neck surgery, most voiding difficulty resolves within 1 or 2 weeks of surgery, but up to 20% of women can continue with this problem for an extended period (up to 6 months) before being able to void normally (Smith and Cardozo 1997).
Drains
Intraperitoneal (pelvic) drains have been associated with an increased incidence of infection, and should only be used when the benefits outweigh the risks. Evidence from recent randomized trials and systematic reviews is against the routine use of drains. A recent large randomized trial of drains compared with no drains following radical hysterectomy and pelvic lymph node dissection concluded that drains can be safely omitted in the absence of excessive bleeding during surgery or oozing at the end of surgery (Franchi et al 2007). A systematic review evaluating the value of routine suction drains after retroperitoneal lymphadenectomy in gynaecological tumours concluded that the prophylactic use of continuous suction drains is associated with a significant increase in morbidity and should be avoided (Bacha et al 2009). On the other hand, drainage of surgical wounds (especially clean-contaminated wounds) using a closed-suction system has been used prophylactically to reduce wound infection (Panici et al 2003).
Postoperative pain management
Effective relief of postoperative pain is of paramount importance as it offers significant psychological and physiological benefits to the recovering patient. Not only does it mean a smooth postoperative course with earlier discharge from hospital, but it also helps to reduce the incidence of complications (Nagaratnam et al 2007). In addition, there is evidence that good pain relief can reduce the onset of chronic pain syndromes. Inadequate pain management could lead to reduced deep breathing, causing impaired oxygenation. It can also cause inability to cough and clear lung secretions which may lead to lung atelectasis. Pain reduces a patient’s mobility, leading to slower recovery and increased risk of morbidities such as deep vein thrombosis (DVT). The benefits of good postoperative pain management are summarized in Table 9.1.
Improved recovery | Patient satisfaction |
Wound healing | |
Early mobilization | |
Early hospital discharge | |
Reduced morbidities | Respiratory complications |
Tachycardia and dysrhythmias | |
Thromboembolic events | |
Acute coronary syndromes | |
Chronic pain syndrome |
The first step in achieving good pain control is preoperative prediction and accurate postoperative assessment of the degree of pain. Such pain is subjective and can vary greatly in severity between patients from almost no pain to very severe pain. There are two main factors determining the degree of postoperative pain: firstly, the nature, extent and site of the surgery; and secondly, factors related to the patient including fear, anxiety and pain threshold. A previous experience of postoperative pain may also infuence the patient’s expectation and perception of pain. It is therefore important to plan postoperative pain management through consultation between the surgeon and the anaesthetist based on the predicted pain severity. It is also important to explain to the patient the expected degree of pain and the steps that will be taken to ensure effective pain relief afterwards. It is usually helpful to establish the patient’s expectations of pain before surgery. This approach has been shown to minimize the patient’s fear and anxiety from pain and to reduce the requirement for postoperative analgesia (Karanikolas and Swarm 2000).
Methods of assessment
The analgesic ladder
The World Federation of Societies of Anaesthesiologists’ analgesic ladder, which has been developed to treat acute pain, can be utilized for postoperative pain (Charlton 1997; Figure 9.1). In women undergoing major gynaecological surgery, the initial pain can be expected to be severe and may need injections of strong opioids [e.g. morphine, preferably by a patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) system], which can be combined with local anaesthesia. As pain decreases with time, analgesia can be stepped down and parenteral opioids can be gradually replaced by the oral route. Strong oral opioids (e.g. oromorph) can be given, to be gradually replaced with a combination of peripherally acting agents (e.g. paracetamol and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) and weak opioids (e.g. codeine phosphate). The final step is when the pain can be controlled by peripherally acting agents alone.
Wound care
Good wound care will promote healing and minimize complications such as infection, haematoma formation or dehiscence. Wound care begins during surgery with careful handling of tissues, avoidance of cautery for skin incision, meticulous haemostasis, good closure techniques and avoidance of excessive traction on the skin edges (Boesch and Umek 2009). At the end of surgery, a wound dressing is applied, mainly to cover the fresh wound to prevent seepage of serum or blood, but this does not have any protective effect against infection. It should be removed on the first postoperative day when the wound has become dry. Any serous or serosanguinous discharge can be squeezed out by gentle pressure on the wound edges. Patients can be allowed a shower, but should keep the wound dry and clean. Sutures and staples can be removed from transverse wounds after 4–5 days, but vertical wounds usually require 7–10 days to heal.
Wound infection
Wound infection occurs in 3–5% of clean wounds and 10–20% of clean-contaminated wounds in the absence of antibiotic prophylaxis. It usually presents by the fifth postoperative day as erythema, induration and pain in the area surrounding the incision, and may be associated with pyrexia. A wound swab should be taken for culture, and broad-spectrum antibiotics should be given. If the infection progresses to pus formation under the suture line, this should be drained. Usually, at this stage, the wound separates either partially or completely, allowing drainage. However, if the wound remains intact or if the separation is only small, the wound should be opened (in theatre if necessary) to allow drainage. If there is a significant delay in healing with development of devitalized tissue, the wound should be opened in theatre, explored, debrided and packed with gauze, followed by twice-daily dressing changes. At this stage, the tissue viability team and microbiologists should be involved in the care of this chronically infected wound to ensure that the most appropriate dressings and treatments are given. Negative pressure wound therapy may be considered in these wounds to promote the production of granulation tissue and encourage neovascularization (Walsh et al 2009).
Necrotizing fasciitis
Necrotizing fasciitis is a rare but life-threatening and rapidly progressive infection of the superficial fascia and subcutaneous tissues (Addison et al 1984). It often occurs in diabetic and immunosuppressed patients, but can also affect women with other chronic illnesses. It is characterized by dusky and friable subcutaneous tissue with serous drainage from a small wound that may be separate from the original incision wound. It can also occur on the vulva or perineum, often not related to surgery. There is extensive tissue necrosis and a moderate or severe systemic toxic reaction. Very radical excision is essential with antibiotics and supportive therapy.