Blood Gas Sampling, Analysis, Monitoring, and Interpretation

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3 Blood Gas Sampling, Analysis, Monitoring, and Interpretation

Note 1: This book is written to cover every item listed as testable on the Entry Level Examination (ELE), Written Registry Examination (WRE), and Clinical Simulation Examination (CSE).

The listed code for each item is taken from the National Board for Respiratory Care’s (NBRC) Summary Content Outline for CRT (Certified Respiratory Therapist) and Written RRT (Registered Respiratory Therapist) Examinations (http://evolve.elsevier.com/Sills/resptherapist/). For example, if an item is testable on both the ELE and the WRE, it will simply be shown as: (Code: …). If an item is only testable on the ELE, it will be shown as: (ELE code: …). If an item is only testable on the WRE, it will be shown as: (WRE code: …).

Following each item’s code will be the difficulty level of the questions on that item on the ELE and WRE. (See the Introduction for a full explanation of the three question difficulty levels.) Recall [R] level questions typically expect the exam taker to recall factual information. Application [Ap] level questions are harder because the exam taker may have to apply factual information to a clinical situation. Analysis [An] level questions are the most challenging because the exam taker may have to use critical thinking to evaluate patient data to make a clinical decision.

Note 2: A review of the most recent Entry Level Examinations (ELE) has shown an average of 10 questions (out of 140), or 7% of the exam, that cover blood gas sampling, analysis, monitoring, and interpretation. A review of the most recent Written Registry Examinations (WRE) has shown an average of 5 questions (out of 100), or 5% of the exam, that cover blood gas sampling, analysis, monitoring, and interpretation. The Clinical Simulation Examination is comprehensive and may include everything that should be known by an advanced level respiratory therapist.

MODULE A

Blood can be sampled from a systemic artery, pulmonary artery, or “arterialized” capillary to determine a patient’s oxygen and carbon dioxide pressures, acid-base status (pH), and related values. As is discussed later, a pulmonary artery sample is taken to learn a patient’s mixed venous values, and an “arterialized” capillary sample is taken from a neonate when an arterial sample cannot be obtained. Arterial blood gas (ABG) is the term commonly used when discussing drawing a sample of blood from a patient’s systemic artery.

There are three broad, general indications for this recommendation:

Some specific indications follow.

MODULE B

1. Blood gas sampling device selection and preparation

A properly prepared sampling device is essential to obtaining a blood sample that accurately reflects the patient’s physiologic values.

a. Get the appropriate blood gas sampler

Obtaining an ABG sample generally involves selecting a prepackaged, sterile blood gas kit that contains the following:

If a blood gas kit is not available, an appropriate individual needle, 3-mL syringe, and liquid sodium or lithium heparin must be obtained. These should be available at any nursing station or from the respiratory care department.

A capillary blood gas (CBG) sample requires the following:

In addition, if the blood sample cannot be analyzed within 30 minutes, place it into an ice-water mix in a cup to chill the blood.

2. Manipulate arterial catheters by order or protocol (WRE code: IIA20b) [Difficulty: WRE: R, Ap, An]

a. Select the appropriate catheter

An arterial catheter (also called an arterial line) is a flexible catheter that is placed into a peripheral artery for the purposes of sampling blood or continuously monitoring the patient’s blood pressure, or both. The blood-sampling procedure is explained in the following discussion. Chapter 5 contains a discussion on blood pressure monitoring and illustrations of how the monitoring system is assembled. The radial artery is the most common site for catheter insertion. Alternate arterial sites may be used if needed.

An adult’s radial artery is usually catheterized. To do so, a short needle covered with a flexible plastic catheter (an angiocatheter) is selected. Usually the needle is 23 or 24 gauge. After the angiocatheter is inserted into the artery, the needle is removed, and the catheter is left in the artery.

A newborn with a severe cardiopulmonary problem should have the catheter inserted into either of the umbilical arteries. Usually, a long, flexible umbilical artery catheter (UAC) is placed into the patient and advanced into the aorta (see Figure 1-7). If indicated, this should be done as quickly as possible after birth, before arterial spasm prevents the catheter from being advanced. If the patient weighs more than 1250 g, a 6-French (6 Fr) catheter is used; a 3.5 Fr catheter is used if the neonate weighs less than 1250 g. Besides obtaining blood samples and monitoring the blood pressure, one can give the newborn glucose or a blood transfusion through the catheter. A neonatal patient also may have the umbilical vein catheterized.

3. Get a blood sample from an arterial catheter (Code: IB9f and IIIE2b) [Difficulty: ELE: R, Ap; WRE: An]

The steps for obtaining an arterial blood sample include the following:

4. Perform an arterial puncture to obtain a blood sample for analysis (Code: IB9f and IIIE2a) [Difficulty: ELE: R, Ap; WRE: An]

A number of possible variations on the technique exist. The following is a general but thorough listing of the steps and any important related information.

1. Radial artery site

See Figure 3-2 for the basic procedure. Circulation to the hand is stopped by pressing both the radial and the ulnar arteries closed. Releasing the pressure over the ulnar artery should result in the hand flushing within 5 to 15 seconds. This is a positive test result and proves that the ulnar artery has adequate circulation to the hand. If the hand does not flush within 15 seconds of the release of the ulnar artery, the circulation is inadequate, and the radial artery of that wrist must not be punctured. Another site must be evaluated for puncture.

2. Dorsalis pedis artery site

Press down on the dorsalis pedis artery to occlude it. Press on the nail of the great toe so that it blanches. Release the pressure on the nail, and watch for a rapid return of color. This normal test finding confirms that a good blood flow exists through the posterior tibial and lateral plantar arteries. It is safe to draw a sample from the site. A slow return of blood flow indicates poor circulation; another site must be chosen.

h. Draw the blood sample.

5. Perform arterialized capillary blood gas sampling (Code: IB9g and IIIE2c) [Difficulty: ELE: R, Ap; WRE: An]

Occasionally, a sample of arterialized capillary blood from a patient must be obtained for blood gas analysis. The usual clinical situation is a neonate who has a pulmonary problem that warrants evaluation. However, because of the neonate’s small arteries, a sample cannot be drawn. The steps and key points to keep in mind during the sampling procedure follow.

d. Use a pediatric lance to deeply puncture the outer edge of the heel (Figure 3-4). Blood should flow freely without squeezing the area. Wipe away the first blood drop with a sterile gauze pad. The blood will be “dearterialized” if it is squeezed out with venous blood, and the sample will be useless for blood gas analysis.

MODULE C

1. Manipulate a point-of-care blood gas analyzer by order or protocol (Code: IIA10) [Difficulty: ELE: R, Ap; WRE: An]

b. Put the equipment together and make sure that it works properly (CSE code: IIA10)

POC analyzers can be powered through a self-contained battery or by plugging the unit into a standard alternating current electrical outlet. The units have single-use disposable cartridges that include the electrodes and calibration reagents and will hold waste samples. The following discussion covers the basic principles of operation of the electrodes in POC and standard centrally located analyzers.

1. pH electrode

The modern pH electrode has existed since the mid-1950s and is usually referred to as the Sanz electrode after its principal inventor. The basic principle behind the pH analyzer is its ability to measure the voltage (potential for electrical flow) between two different solutions. This is based on the different hydrogen ion (H+) concentrations between the solutions that reflect their relative pH values. The reference electrode is immersed in a solution with a pH of 6.840 that fills a glass or plastic chamber. The blood sample, of unknown pH, is placed in a separate measuring chamber called a cuvette. These two chambers are separated by a special glass membrane that contains metals and sodium ions (Na+), thus making it pH sensitive. Both chambers are kept at a stable 37° C temperature. See Figure 3-5 for a graphic representation of the pH electrode. When blood or a quality control (QC) material is introduced into the cuvette, the potential exists for hydrogen ions to replace the sodium ions in the pH-sensitive glass if the two pHs are different. The replacement is proportional to the difference in the two pHs.

3. Po2 electrode

This unit is completely different from the others mentioned. It was developed in the late 1950s by Clark and thus is usually called a Clark electrode. It is also sometimes known as a polarographic electrode because of the basis of its operation. Figure 3-7 is a drawing of key features of the unit. A phosphate-KCl buffer solution surrounds the silver anode. A thin membrane separates the blood-filled cuvette from direct contact with the electrode but allows oxygen molecules to diffuse slowly through to contact the platinum wire cathode. The whole unit is heated to 37° C. The term polarographic comes from the addition of about 0.7 volt to the cathode to make it slightly “polarized” or negative compared with the anode. This is needed to ensure that oxygen is rapidly chemically reduced (that it gains electrons) at the cathode. This creates an electrical current directly proportional to the number of reduced oxygen molecules.

image

Figure 3-7 Schematic illustration of the Clark electrode for measuring PO2.

(From Harrison BA, Shapiro C: Clinical application of blood gases, ed 4, St Louis, 1989, Mosby.)

It must be understood that the partial pressure of oxygen (Po2) being measured is derived from oxygen that is dissolved in the plasma. It does not come from the hemoglobin found in the erythrocytes (red blood cells). The reported value for the saturation of oxygen in the hemoglobin (Sao2) is calculated by using a mathematical table. Under normal conditions, the calculated Sao2 value is the same as or close to the true Sao2 value. Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning is the only commonly seen clinical situation during which a calculated saturation can be incorrectly high. If carbon monoxide poisoning is suspected or known, the patient’s blood sample should be analyzed on a CO-oximeter unit.

d. Perform quality control procedures for a blood gas analyzer (Code: IIC1) [Difficulty: ELE: R, Ap; WRE: An]

4. Quality control materials

A variety of QC materials are available to calibrate the electrodes for Po2, Pco2, and pH measurements. Their uses vary. Each of the following materials has its advantages, disadvantages, and limitations. The manufacturer of a particular brand or model of blood gas analyzer may require that a specific type of material be used in its units.

Aqueous buffers are water based and are used to check pH and Pco2 measurements; they cannot be used to check Po2 measurements. Commercially prepared gases are used to check Po2 and Pco2 measurements; they cannot be used to check pH measurements. The following CO2 mixes may be used: 0, 5%, 10%, and 12%. The following O2 mixes may be used: 0, 12%, 20%, 20.95% from room air, 21%, and 100%.

Tonometered liquids are exposed in the laboratory to known oxygen and carbon dioxide gas mixes until the liquids are saturated and have the same partial pressures as the gases. Three types of tonometered liquids are used. First, using human or animal serum or whole blood is the most accurate method available and is used mainly to obtain Po2 and Pco2 levels. Although whole human blood cannot be used for pH measurements, a bovine blood product can be used to obtain all three values. Second, assayed liquids are non–water-based liquids that are pretonometered by the manufacturer and are available in sealed glass vials. They can be used to obtain Po2, Pco2, and pH measurements. These are very popular because of the advantages of speed and simplicity. Third, oxygenated fluorocarbon-based emulsions (perfluorinated compounds) can be used to obtain Po2, Pco2, and pH measurements. They are considered as accurate as whole blood without its associated risks.

5. Levey-Jennings charts

The Levey-Jennings charts (also known as Shewhart/Levey-Jennings or quality control [QC] charts) are used to record the results of each calibration procedure. They are similarly designed with time plotted on the horizontal scale and the analyte (Po2, Pco2, or pH) on the vertical scale. The vertical scale for each analyte has a central value for what is normally expected. On both sides of this normal value are standard deviation (SD) points, showing movement away from what is expected. When an analyte electrode is operating within the acceptable limits, it is said to be in control. In general, if an analyte is within 2 SDs of the normal value, it is considered to be in control.

An out-of-control situation exists whenever a single calibration value or a series of calibration values is outside established limits. A random error is an unpredictable aberration in precision that occurs when the QC material is sampled. A systematic error shows an accuracy problem and is much more serious. It must be investigated, corrected, and documented. Figure 3-8 shows an example of both random error and systematic error. Rules have been established for determining whether the error is random or systematic (Table 3-1).

TABLE 3-1 Westgard’s Rules for Determining When an Aalyzer Is Not Functioning Properly

Rule name Levey-Jennings chart
RANDOM ERROR
1-2 SDs The measurement is more than 2 SDs but not more than 3 SDs from the mean.
1-3 SDs The measurement is more than 3 SDs from the mean.
R*-4 SDs Two consecutive measurements are 4 SDs or more apart.
SYSTEMATIC ERROR
2-2 SDs Two consecutive measurements are either 2 SDs above or 2 SDs below the mean.
4-1 SDs Four consecutive measurements are either 1 SD above or 1 SD below the mean.
7-trend Seven consecutive measurements are on only one side of the mean; each measurement is progressively more out of control.
10-mean Ten consecutive measurements are on only one side of the mean.

SDs, standard deviations.

Modified from Lane EE, Walker JF: Clinical arterial blood gas analysis, St Louis, 1987, Mosby.

7. Pco2 electrode

8. Po2 electrode

e. Perform quality control procedures for a point-of-care blood gas analyzer (Code: IIC3) [Difficulty: ELE: R, Ap; WRE: An]

The general principles of QC and QA discussed with standard blood gas analyzers apply to point-of-care (POC) analyzers as well. Remember to flush the electrode membrane after each use, if possible, to prevent protein buildup. If protein buildup occurs, the response time is longer than normal. Follow the manufacturer’s guidelines to change an electrode membrane as needed. Make sure that no air bubbles are under the membrane or within the tubing through which the blood travels. Rerun the calibration for any of the electrodes and reanalyze the sample if you are suspicious of the result. If the electrode does not calibrate close to the reference buffer solutions or gases, it should not be used.

In a random-error situation, the practitioner likely made a simple error when introducing the material or running the analyzer. Common problems include an air bubble injected into the unit or incomplete flushing of the previous sample. Usually flushing out any residual blood and then carefully injecting more of the current patient blood samples will correct the problem. Run the analyzer again to obtain new patient values or run the same patient sample through another analyzer and compare the two sets of results.

A systematic error usually indicates a problem with the analyzer, QC materials, or processes. Examples of systematic errors include misanalyzed CO2 or O2 standards for calibration; contaminated QC materials; or deteriorated oxygen, carbon dioxide, or pH electrode function. Each of these must be investigated until the problem is found and corrected. The unit cannot be used again until after it is proven to work properly and to give accurate results.

f. Perform blood gas analysis (Code: IB9j and IIIE3c) [Difficulty: ELE: R, Ap; WRE: An]

Modern blood gas analyzers are simple to operate. Follow the manufacturer’s guidelines for insertion of the blood sample. Perform the specified steps in the analysis. Print out the results. Many current units run a self-diagnosis if any problems appear. Correct any identified problems as discussed above.

1. CO-oximeter/hemoximeter

a. Perform quality control procedures on the CO-oximeter/hemoximeter (Code: IIC1) [Difficulty: ELE: R, Ap; WRE: An].

The unit is preassembled by the manufacturer. Practical experience with a unit is recommended to understand how to add a patient blood sample and perform calibration duties. (See Figure 3-9 for a schematic drawing of a CO-oximeter.) A thallium-neon hollow cathode lamp emits light in the infrared-visible range. A device called a monochromator contains four filters and rotates through the light beam. Each filter allows only one specific wavelength to pass through it. These four monochromatic wavelengths correspond to the three isosbestic points, discussed later (shown in Figure 3-10) and 626.6 nm. This last wavelength is poorly absorbed by all four hemoglobin moieties. It is used to find the maximal difference in absorption so that the relative amounts of the hemoglobin species can be determined.

When a blood sample is placed into the cuvette, the same four wavelengths are passed through it. The amount of absorbance at each wavelength is measured and compared with the absorbance at each wavelength by a reference sample solution (see the following discussion). The computer integrates the data and calculates the total hemoglobin concentration and the amounts of the four hemoglobin moieties.

Total hemoglobin (THb) concentration should be calibrated when the unit is installed, at regular intervals suggested by the manufacturer, after the sample tubing is changed, after the cuvette is disassembled or changed, and whenever a suspicious reading is seen. Calibration is done by filling the cuvette with a special dye produced by the manufacturer and analyzing it by following the prescribed steps.

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