Video Library of Gait Disorders

APPROACH TO THE PATIENT:

Delirium

Because the diagnosis of delirium is clinical and is made at the bedside, a careful history and physical examination are necessary in evaluating patients with possible confusional states. Screening tools can aid physicians and nurses in identifying patients with delirium, including the Confusion Assessment Method (CAM) (Table 34-1); the Organic Brain Syndrome Scale; the Delirium Rating Scale; and, in the ICU, the ICU version of the CAM and the Delirium Detection Score. Using the well-validated CAM, a diagnosis of delirium is made if there is (1) an acute onset and fluctuating course and (2) inattention accompanied by either (3) disorganized thinking or (4) an altered level of consciousness. These scales may not identify the full spectrum of patients with delirium, and all patients who are acutely confused should be presumed delirious regardless of their presentation due to the wide variety of possible clinical features. A course that fluctuates over hours or days and may worsen at night (termed sundowning) is typical but not essential for the diagnosis. Observation of the patient usually will reveal an altered level of consciousness or a deficit of attention. Other features that are sometimes present include alteration of sleep-wake cycles, thought disturbances such as hallucinations or delusions, autonomic instability, and changes in affect.

^aInformation is usually obtained from a reliable reporter, such as a family member, caregiver, or nurse.

Source: Modified from SK Inouye et al: Clarifying confusion: The Confusion Assessment Method. A new method for detection of delirium. Ann Intern Med 113:941, 1990.

HISTORY

It may be difficult to elicit an accurate history in delirious patients who have altered levels of consciousness or impaired attention. Information from a collateral source such as a spouse or another family member is therefore invaluable. The three most important pieces of history are the patient’s baseline cognitive function, the time course of the present illness, and current medications.

Premorbid cognitive function can be assessed through the collateral source or, if needed, via a review of outpatient records. Delirium by definition represents a change that is relatively acute, usually over hours to days, from a cognitive baseline. As a result, an acute confusional state is nearly impossible to diagnose without some knowledge of baseline cognitive function. Without this information, many patients with dementia or depression may be mistaken as delirious during a single initial evaluation. Patients with a more hypoactive, apathetic presentation with psychomotor slowing may be identified as being different from baseline only through conversations with family members. A number of validated instruments have been shown to diagnose cognitive dysfunction accurately using a collateral source, including the modified Blessed Dementia Rating Scale and the Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR). Baseline cognitive impairment is common in patients with delirium. Even when no such history of cognitive impairment is elicited, there should still be a high suspicion for a previously unrecognized underlying neurologic disorder.

Establishing the time course of cognitive change is important not only to make a diagnosis of delirium but also to correlate the onset of the illness with potentially treatable etiologies such as recent medication changes or symptoms of systemic infection.

Medications remain a common cause of delirium, especially compounds with anticholinergic or sedative properties. It is estimated that nearly one-third of all cases of delirium are secondary to medications, especially in the elderly. Medication histories should include all prescription as well as over-the-counter and herbal substances taken by the patient and any recent changes in dosing or formulation, including substitution of generics for brand-name medications.

Other important elements of the history include screening for symptoms of organ failure or systemic infection, which often contributes to delirium in the elderly. A history of illicit drug use, alcoholism, or toxin exposure is common in younger delirious patients. Finally, asking the patient and collateral source about other symptoms that may accompany delirium, such as depression, may help identify potential therapeutic targets.

PHYSICAL EXAMINATION

The general physical examination in a delirious patient should include careful screening for signs of infection such as fever, tachypnea, pulmonary consolidation, heart murmur, and stiff neck. The patient’s fluid status should be assessed; both dehydration and fluid overload with resultant hypoxemia have been associated with delirium, and each is usually easily rectified. The appearance of the skin can be helpful, showing jaundice in hepatic encephalopathy, cyanosis in hypoxemia, or needle tracks in patients using intravenous drugs.

The neurologic examination requires a careful assessment of mental status. Patients with delirium often present with a fluctuating course; therefore, the diagnosis can be missed when one relies on a single time point of evaluation. Some but not all patients exhibit the characteristic pattern of sundowning, a worsening of their condition in the evening. In these cases, assessment only during morning rounds may be falsely reassuring.

An altered level of consciousness ranging from hyperarousal to lethargy to coma is present in most patients with delirium and can be assessed easily at the bedside. In a patient with a relatively normal level of consciousness, a screen for an attentional deficit is in order, because this deficit is the classic neuropsychological hallmark of delirium. Attention can be assessed while taking a history from the patient. Tangential speech, a fragmentary flow of ideas, or inability to follow complex commands often signifies an attentional problem. There are formal neuropsychological tests to assess attention, but a simple bedside test of digit span forward is quick and fairly sensitive. In this task, patients are asked to repeat successively longer random strings of digits beginning with two digits in a row, said to the patient at 1-second intervals. Healthy adults can repeat a string of five to seven digits before faltering; a digit span of four or less usually indicates an attentional deficit unless hearing or language barriers are present, and many patients with delirium have digit spans of three or fewer digits.

More formal neuropsychological testing can be helpful in assessing a delirious patient, but it is usually too cumbersome and time-consuming in the inpatient setting. A Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) provides information regarding orientation, language, and visuospatial skills; however, performance of many tasks on the MMSE, including the spelling of “world” backward and serial subtraction of digits, will be impaired by delirious patients’ attentional deficits, rendering the test unreliable.

The remainder of the screening neurologic examination should focus on identifying new focal neurologic deficits. Focal strokes or mass lesions in isolation are rarely the cause of delirium, but patients with underlying extensive cerebrovascular disease or neurodegenerative conditions may not be able to cognitively tolerate even relatively small new insults. Patients should be screened for other signs of neurodegenerative conditions such as parkinsonism, which is seen not only in idiopathic Parkinson’s disease but also in other dementing conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, and progressive supranuclear palsy. The presence of multifocal myoclonus or asterixis on the motor examination is nonspecific but usually indicates a metabolic or toxic etiology of the delirium.

ETIOLOGY

Some etiologies can be easily discerned through a careful history and physical examination, whereas others require confirmation with laboratory studies, imaging, or other ancillary tests. A large, diverse group of insults can lead to delirium, and the cause in many patients is often multifactorial. Common etiologies are listed in Table 34-2.

Abbreviations: CNS, central nervous system; GHB, γ-hydroxybutyrate; LSD, lysergic acid diethylamide; PCP, phencyclidine.

Prescribed, over-the-counter, and herbal medications all can precipitate delirium. Drugs with anticholinergic properties, narcotics, and benzodiazepines are particularly common offenders, but nearly any compound can lead to cognitive dysfunction in a predisposed patient. Whereas an elderly patient with baseline dementia may become delirious upon exposure to a relatively low dose of a medication, less susceptible individuals may become delirious only with very high doses of the same medication. This observation emphasizes the importance of correlating the timing of recent medication changes, including dose and formulation, with the onset of cognitive dysfunction.

In younger patients, illicit drugs and toxins are common causes of delirium. In addition to more classic drugs of abuse, the recent rise in availability of methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy), γ-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), “bath salts,” synthetic cannabis, and the phencyclidine (PCP)-like agent ketamine, has led to an increase in delirious young persons presenting to acute care settings (Chap. 469e). Many common prescription drugs such as oral narcotics and benzodiazepines are often abused and readily available on the street. Alcohol abuse leading to high serum levels causes confusion, but more commonly, it is withdrawal from alcohol that leads to a hyperactive delirium. Alcohol and benzodiazepine withdrawal should be considered in all cases of delirium because even patients who drink only a few servings of alcohol every day can experience relatively severe withdrawal symptoms upon hospitalization.

Metabolic abnormalities such as electrolyte disturbances of sodium, calcium, magnesium, or glucose can cause delirium, and mild derangements can lead to substantial cognitive disturbances in susceptible individuals. Other common metabolic etiologies include liver and renal failure, hypercarbia and hypoxemia, vitamin deficiencies of thiamine and B₁₂, autoimmune disorders including central nervous system (CNS) vasculitis, and endocrinopathies such as thyroid and adrenal disorders.

Systemic infections often cause delirium, especially in the elderly. A common scenario involves the development of an acute cognitive decline in the setting of a urinary tract infection in a patient with baseline dementia. Pneumonia, skin infections such as cellulitis, and frank sepsis also lead to delirium. This so-called septic encephalopathy, often seen in the ICU, is probably due to the release of proinflammatory cytokines and their diffuse cerebral effects. CNS infections such as meningitis, encephalitis, and abscess are less common etiologies of delirium; however, in light of the high mortality rates associated with these conditions when they are not treated quickly, clinicians must always maintain a high index of suspicion.

In some susceptible individuals, exposure to the unfamiliar environment of a hospital itself can lead to delirium. This etiology usually occurs as part of a multifactorial delirium and should be considered a diagnosis of exclusion after all other causes have been thoroughly investigated. Many primary prevention and treatment strategies for delirium involve relatively simple methods to address the aspects of the inpatient setting that are most confusing.

Cerebrovascular etiologies of delirium are usually due to global hypoperfusion in the setting of systemic hypotension from heart failure, septic shock, dehydration, or anemia. Focal strokes in the right parietal lobe and medial dorsal thalamus rarely can lead to a delirious state. A more common scenario involves a new focal stroke or hemorrhage causing confusion in a patient who has decreased cerebral reserve. In these individuals, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between cognitive dysfunction resulting from the new neurovascular insult itself and delirium due to the infectious, metabolic, and pharmacologic complications that can accompany hospitalization after stroke.

Because a fluctuating course often is seen in delirium, intermittent seizures may be overlooked when one is considering potential etiologies. Both nonconvulsive status epilepticus and recurrent focal or generalized seizures followed by postictal confusion can cause delirium; EEG remains essential for this diagnosis. Seizure activity spreading from an electrical focus in a mass or infarct can explain global cognitive dysfunction caused by relatively small lesions.

It is very common for patients to experience delirium at the end of life in palliative care settings. This condition, sometimes described as terminal restlessness, must be identified and treated aggressively because it is an important cause of patient and family discomfort at the end of life. It should be remembered that these patients also may be suffering from more common etiologies of delirium such as systemic infection.

LABORATORY AND DIAGNOSTIC EVALUATION

A cost-effective approach to the diagnostic evaluation of delirium allows the history and physical examination to guide further tests. No established algorithm for workup will fit all delirious patients due to the staggering number of potential etiologies, but one stepwise approach is detailed in Table 34-3. If a clear precipitant is identified, such as an offending medication, further testing may not be required. If, however, no likely etiology is uncovered with initial evaluation, an aggressive search for an underlying cause should be initiated.

Abbreviations: c-ANCA, cytoplasmic antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody; CNS, central nervous system; CT, computed tomography; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging; p-ANCA, perinuclear antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody.

Basic screening labs, including a complete blood count, electrolyte panel, and tests of liver and renal function, should be obtained in all patients with delirium. In elderly patients, screening for systemic infection, including chest radiography, urinalysis and culture, and possibly blood cultures, is important. In younger individuals, serum and urine drug and toxicology screening may be appropriate early in the workup. Additional laboratory tests addressing other autoimmune, endocrinologic, metabolic, and infectious etiologies should be reserved for patients in whom the diagnosis remains unclear after initial testing.

Multiple studies have demonstrated that brain imaging in patients with delirium is often unhelpful. If, however, the initial workup is unrevealing, most clinicians quickly move toward imaging of the brain to exclude structural causes. A noncontrast computed tomography (CT) scan can identify large masses and hemorrhages but is otherwise unlikely to help determine an etiology of delirium. The ability of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to identify most acute ischemic strokes as well as to provide neuroanatomic detail that gives clues to possible infectious, inflammatory, neurodegenerative, and neoplastic conditions makes it the test of choice. Because MRI techniques are limited by availability, speed of imaging, patient cooperation, and contraindications, many clinicians begin with CT scanning and proceed to MRI if the etiology of delirium remains elusive.

Lumbar puncture (LP) must be obtained immediately after appropriate neuroimaging in all patients in whom CNS infection is suspected. Spinal fluid examination can also be useful in identifying inflammatory and neoplastic conditions. As a result, LP should be considered in any delirious patient with a negative workup. EEG does not have a routine role in the workup of delirium, but it remains invaluable if seizure-related etiologies are considered.

APPROACH TO THE PATIENT:

Dementias

Three major issues should be kept at the forefront: (1) What is the best fit for a clinical diagnosis? (2) What component of the dementia syndrome is treatable or reversible? (3) Can the physician help to alleviate the burden on caregivers? A broad overview of the approach to dementia is shown in Table 35-3. The major degenerative dementias can usually be distinguished by the initial symptoms; neuropsychological, neuropsychiatric, and neurologic findings; and neuroimaging features (Table 35-4).

HISTORY

The history should concentrate on the onset, duration, and tempo of progression. An acute or subacute onset of confusion may be due to delirium (Chap. 34) and should trigger the search for intoxication, infection, or metabolic derangement. An elderly person with slowly progressive memory loss over several years is likely to suffer from AD. Nearly 75% of patients with AD begin with memory symptoms, but other early symptoms include difficulty with managing money, driving, shopping, following instructions, finding words, or navigating. Personality change, disinhibition, and weight gain or compulsive eating suggest FTD, not AD. FTD is also suggested by prominent apathy, compulsivity, loss of empathy for others, or progressive loss of speech fluency or single-word comprehension and by a relative sparing of memory and visuospatial abilities. The diagnosis of DLB is suggested by early visual hallucinations; parkinsonism; proneness to delirium or sensitivity to psychoactive medications; rapid eye movement (REM) behavior disorder (RBD; the loss of skeletal muscle paralysis during dreaming); or Capgras syndrome, the delusion that a familiar person has been replaced by an impostor.

A history of stroke with irregular stepwise progression suggests vascular dementia. Vascular dementia is also commonly seen in the setting of hypertension, atrial fibrillation, peripheral vascular disease, and diabetes. In patients suffering from cerebrovascular disease, it can be difficult to determine whether the dementia is due to AD, vascular disease, or a mixture of the two because many of the risk factors for vascular dementia, including diabetes, high cholesterol, elevated homocysteine, and low exercise, are also putative risk factors for AD. Moreover, many patients with a major vascular contribution to their dementia lack a history of stepwise decline. Rapid progression with motor rigidity and myoclonus suggests CJD (Chap. 453e). Seizures may indicate strokes or neoplasm but also occur in AD, particularly early-age-of-onset AD. Gait disturbance is common in vascular dementia, PD/DLB, or NPH. A history of high-risk sexual behaviors or intravenous drug use should trigger a search for central nervous system (CNS) infection, especially HIV or syphilis. A history of recurrent head trauma could indicate chronic subdural hematoma, chronic traumatic encephalopathy (a progressive dementia best characterized in contact sport athletes such as boxers and American football players), intracranial hypotension, or NPH. Subacute onset of severe amnesia and psychosis with mesial temporal T2/fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) hyperintensities on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) should raise concern for paraneoplastic limbic encephalitis, especially in a long-term smoker or other patients at risk for cancer. Related autoimmune conditions, such as voltage-gated potassium channel (VGKC)- or N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-receptor antibody-mediated encephalopathy, can present with a similar tempo and imaging signature with or without characteristic motor manifestations such as myokymia (anti-VGKC) and faciobrachial dystonic seizures (anti-NMDA). Alcohol abuse creates risk for malnutrition and thiamine deficiency. Veganism, bowel irradiation, an autoimmune diathesis, a remote history of gastric surgery, and chronic antihistamine therapy for dyspepsia or gastroesophageal reflux predispose to B₁₂ deficiency. Certain occupations, such as working in a battery or chemical factory, might indicate heavy metal intoxication. Careful review of medication intake, especially for sedatives and analgesics, may raise the issue of chronic drug intoxication. An autosomal dominant family history is found in HD and in familial forms of AD, FTD, DLB, or prion disorders. A history of mood disorders, the recent death of a loved one, or depressive signs, such as insomnia or weight loss, raise the possibility of depression-related cognitive impairments.

PHYSICAL AND NEUROLOGIC EXAMINATION

A thorough general and neurologic examination is essential to document dementia, to look for other signs of nervous system involvement, and to search for clues suggesting a systemic disease that might be responsible for the cognitive disorder. Typical AD spares motor systems until later in the course. In contrast, FTD patients often develop axial rigidity, supranuclear gaze palsy, or a motor neuron disease reminiscent of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). In DLB, the initial symptoms may include the new onset of a parkinsonian syndrome (resting tremor, cogwheel rigidity, bradykinesia, festinating gait), but DLB often starts with visual hallucinations or dementia. Symptoms referable to the lower brainstem (RBD, gastrointestinal or autonomic problems) may arise years or even decades before parkinsonism or dementia. Corticobasal syndrome (CBS) features asymmetric akinesia and rigidity, dystonia, myoclonus, alien limb phenomena, pyramidal signs, and prefrontal deficits such as nonfluent aphasia with or without motor speech impairment, executive dysfunction, apraxia, or a behavioral disorder. Progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) is associated with unexplained falls, axial rigidity, dysphagia, and vertical gaze deficits. CJD is suggested by the presence of diffuse rigidity, an akinetic-mute state, and prominent, often startle-sensitive myoclonus.

Hemiparesis or other focal neurologic deficits suggest vascular dementia or brain tumor. Dementia with a myelopathy and peripheral neuropathy suggests vitamin B₁₂ deficiency. Peripheral neuropathy could also indicate another vitamin deficiency, heavy metal intoxication, thyroid dysfunction, Lyme disease, or vasculitis. Dry, cool skin, hair loss, and bradycardia suggest hypothyroidism. Fluctuating confusion associated with repetitive stereotyped movements may indicate ongoing limbic, temporal, or frontal seizures. In the elderly, hearing impairment or visual loss may produce confusion and disorientation misinterpreted as dementia. Profound bilateral sensorineural hearing loss in a younger patient with short stature or myopathy, however, should raise concern for a mitochondrial disorder.

COGNITIVE AND NEUROPSYCHIATRIC EXAMINATION

Brief screening tools such as the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MOCA), and Cognistat can be used to capture dementia and follow progression. None of these tests is highly sensitive to early-stage dementia or discriminates between dementia syndromes. The MMSE is a 30 point test of cognitive function, with each correct answer being scored as 1 point. It includes tests in the areas of: orientation (e.g., identify season/date/month/year/floor/hospital/town/state/country); registration (e.g., name and restate 3 objects); recall (e.g., remember the same three objects 5 minutes later); and language (e.g., name pencil and watch; repeat “no if’s and’s or but’s”; follow a 3-step command; obey a written command; and write a sentence and copy a design). In most patients with MCI and some with clinically apparent AD, bedside screening tests may be normal, and a more challenging and comprehensive set of neuropsychological tests will be required. When the etiology for the dementia syndrome remains in doubt, a specially tailored evaluation should be performed that includes tasks of working and episodic memory, executive function, language, and visuospatial and perceptual abilities. In AD, the early deficits involve episodic memory, category generation (“name as many animals as you can in 1 minute”), and visuoconstructive ability. Usually deficits in verbal or visual episodic memory are the first neuropsychological abnormalities detected, and tasks that require the patient to recall a long list of words or a series of pictures after a predetermined delay will demonstrate deficits in most patients. In FTD, the earliest deficits on cognitive testing involve executive control or language (speech or naming) function, but some patients lack either finding despite profound social-emotional deficits. PDD or DLB patients have more severe deficits in visuospatial function but do better on episodic memory tasks than patients with AD. Patients with vascular dementia often demonstrate a mixture of executive control and visuospatial deficits, with prominent psychomotor slowing. In delirium, the most prominent deficits involve attention, working memory, and executive function, making the assessment of other cognitive domains challenging and often uninformative.

A functional assessment should also be performed to help the physician determine the day-to-day impact of the disorder on the patient’s memory, community affairs, hobbies, judgment, dressing, and eating. Knowledge of the patient’s functional abilities will help the clinician and the family to organize a therapeutic approach.

Neuropsychiatric assessment is important for diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment. In the early stages of AD, mild depressive features, social withdrawal, and irritability or anxiety are the most prominent psychiatric changes, but patients often maintain core social graces into the middle or late stages, when delusions, agitation, and sleep disturbance may emerge. In FTD, dramatic personality change with apathy, overeating, compulsions, disinhibition, euphoria, and loss of empathy are early and common. DLB is associated with visual hallucinations, delusions related to person or place identity, RBD, and excessive daytime sleepiness. Dramatic fluctuations occur not only in cognition but also in arousal. Vascular dementia can present with psychiatric symptoms such as depression, anxiety, delusions, disinhibition, or apathy.

LABORATORY TESTS

The choice of laboratory tests in the evaluation of dementia is complex and should be tailored to the individual patient. The physician must take measures to avoid missing a reversible or treatable cause, yet no single treatable etiology is common; thus, a screen must use multiple tests, each of which has a low yield. Cost/benefit ratios are difficult to assess, and many laboratory screening algorithms for dementia discourage multiple tests. Nevertheless, even a test with only a 1–2% positive rate is worth undertaking if the alternative is missing a treatable cause of dementia. Table 35-3 lists most screening tests for dementia. The American Academy of Neurology recommends the routine measurement of a complete blood count, electrolytes, renal and thyroid function, a vitamin B₁₂ level, and a neuroimaging study (computed tomography [CT] or MRI).

Neuroimaging studies, especially MRI, help to rule out primary and metastatic neoplasms, locate areas of infarction or inflammation, detect subdural hematomas, and suggest NPH or diffuse white matter disease. They also help to establish a regional pattern of atrophy. Support for the diagnosis of AD includes hippocampal atrophy in addition to posterior-predominant cortical atrophy (Fig. 35-1). Focal frontal, insular, and/or anterior temporal atrophy (Fig. 35-1). Focal frontal, insular, and/or anterior temporal atrophy suggests FTD (Chap. 448). DLB often features less prominent atrophy, with greater involvement of amygdala than hippocampus. In CJD, magnetic resonance (MR) diffusion-weighted imaging reveals restricted diffusion within the cortical ribbon and basal ganglia in most patients. Extensive white matter abnormalities correlate with a vascular etiology (Fig. 35-2). Communicating hydrocephalus with vertex effacement (crowding of dorsal convexity gyri/sulci), gaping Sylvian fissures despite minimal cortical atrophy, and additional features shown in Fig. 35-3 suggest NPH. Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and PET scanning show temporal-parietal hypoperfusion or hypometabolism in AD and frontotemporal deficits in FTD, but these changes often reflect atrophy and can therefore be detected with MRI alone in many patients. Recently, amyloid imaging has shown promise for the diagnosis of AD, and Pittsburgh Compound-B (PiB) (not available outside of research settings) and ¹⁸F-AV-45 (florbetapir; approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 2013) are reliable radioligands for detecting brain amyloid associated with amyloid angiopathy or neuritic plaques of AD (Fig. 35-4). Because these abnormalities can be seen in cognitively normal older persons, however (~25% of individuals at age 65), amyloid imaging may also detect preclinical or incidental AD in patients lacking an AD-like dementia syndrome. Currently, the main clinical value of amyloid imaging is to exclude AD as the likely cause of dementia in patients who have negative scans. Once disease-modifying therapies become available, use of these biomarkers may help to identify treatment candidates before irreversible brain injury has occurred. In the meantime, the significance of detecting brain amyloid in an asymptomatic elder remains a topic of vigorous investigation. Similarly, MRI perfusion and structural/functional connectivity methods are being explored as potential treatment-monitoring strategies.

FIGURE 35-1   Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Axial T1-weighted magnetic resonance images of a healthy 71-year-old (A) and a 64-year-old with AD (C). Note the reduction in medial temporal lobe volume in the patient with AD. Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography scans of the same individuals (B and D) demonstrate reduced glucose metabolism in the posterior temporoparietal regions bilaterally in AD, a typical finding in this condition. HC, healthy control. (Images courtesy of Gil Rabinovici, University of California, San Francisco and William Jagust, University of California, Berkeley.)

FIGURE 35-2   Diffuse white matter disease. Axial fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) magnetic resonance image through the lateral ventricles reveals multiple areas of hyperintensity (arrows) involving the periventricular white matter as well as the corona radiata and striatum. Although seen in some individuals with normal cognition, this appearance is more pronounced in patients with dementia of a vascular etiology.

FIGURE 35-3   Normal-pressure hydrocephalus. A. Sagittal T1-weighted magnetic resonance image (MRI) demonstrates dilation of the lateral ventricle and stretching of the corpus callosum (arrows), depression of the floor of the third ventricle (single arrowhead), and enlargement of the aqueduct (double arrowheads). Note the diffuse dilation of the lateral, third, and fourth ventricles with a patent aqueduct, typical of communicating hydrocephalus. B. Axial T2-weighted MRIs demonstrate dilation of the lateral ventricles. This patient underwent successful ventriculoperitoneal shunting.

FIGURE 35-4   Positron emission tomography (PET) images obtained with the amyloid-imaging agent Pittsburgh Compound-B ([¹¹C]PIB) in a normal control (left); three different patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI; center); and a patient with mild Alzheimer’s disease (AD; right). Some MCI patients have control-like levels of amyloid, some have AD-like levels of amyloid, and some have intermediate levels. (Images courtesy of William Klunk and Chester Mathis, University of Pittsburgh.)

Lumbar puncture need not be done routinely in the evaluation of dementia, but it is indicated when CNS infection or inflammation are credible diagnostic possibilities. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of Aβ₄₂ and tau proteins show differing patterns with the various dementias, and the presence of low Aβ₄₂ and mildly elevated CSF tau is highly suggestive of AD. The routine use of lumbar puncture in the diagnosis of dementia is debated, but the sensitivity and specificity of AD diagnostic measures are not yet high enough to warrant routine use. Formal psychometric testing helps to document the severity of cognitive disturbance, suggest psychogenic causes, and provide a more formal method for following the disease course. Electroencephalogram (EEG) is not routinely used but can help to suggest CJD (repetitive bursts of diffuse high-amplitude sharp waves, or “periodic complexes”) or an underlying nonconvulsive seizure disorder (epileptiform discharges). Brain biopsy (including meninges) is not advised except to diagnose vasculitis, potentially treatable neoplasms, or unusual infections when the diagnosis is uncertain. Systemic disorders with CNS manifestations, such as sarcoidosis, can usually be confirmed through biopsy of lymph node or solid organ rather than brain. MR angiography should be considered when cerebral vasculitis or cerebral venous thrombosis is a possible cause of the dementia.