Rib Fractures

Young children have a compliant thorax and do not begin to resemble adults until around 8 to 10 years of age. As a consequence, rib fractures are relatively uncommon in young children and occur more frequently in adolescents. Rib fractures are often suspected on physical examination and are identified on a chest radiograph (CXR) during the initial assessment. Independently, rib fractures are infrequently a cause of major morbidity or mortality, but are indicators of significant energy transfer.¹⁶ If a rib fracture is found in a child younger than 3 years, nonaccidental trauma (NAT) should be considered.^17,18 Bone scans and bone surveys are useful in diagnosing remote fractures of the bony thorax in abused children, and follow-up studies improve identification of these injuries.¹⁹ In older children, rib fractures should draw attention to the risk of an associated underlying injury. Fractures and dislocations of the bony thorax and joints may cause significant long-term pain. In addition to pneumothorax and hemothorax, children with first rib fractures may have fractures of the clavicle, central nervous system injury, facial fractures, pelvic fractures, extremity injuries, and major vascular trauma.20,21 When children present with multiple rib fractures, the mortality has been reported to be as high as 42%.²¹ A careful survey of the child must be performed to look for significant injuries in other regions of the body.

The management of rib fractures is typically supportive. Attention to adequate pain relief will prevent atelectasis and pneumonia. Because rib fractures can be associated with a hemothorax or pneumothorax, immediate drainage of fluid, blood, or air via a chest tube or catheter is appropriate.

Flail Chest

Due to the increased pliability of the chest wall, multiple rib fractures in series (flail chest) are not commonly seen in younger children.²² As a result of the wide age and size range, the treatment of flail chest in children, whether surgical or nonsurgical, adds a level of complexity when compared to adults. Chest wall dynamics and physiology differ significantly in infants compared to teenagers. Furthermore, flail chest has been identified in the neonatal period which increases the complexity of management of these patients.²³

When flail chest occurs, the patient’s respiratory effort can be depressed due to a paradoxical motion of the flail segment. The large force required to produce this injury invariably results in injury to the underlying lung, which contributes to the respiratory compromise. Like other thoracic injuries, treatment is tailored to avoid respiratory depression and pneumonia.²⁴ Adequate pain control, supplemental oxygen, chest physiotherapy, and continuous positive-pressure ventilation are non-invasive treatment modalities utilized in these patients.

In selected adults, operative correction of the flail chest has been shown to decrease morbidity, time on the ventilator, intensive care stay, and hospital costs.25,26 Since thoracic operations can be performed in injured children with minimal morbidity and mortality, similar results should be expected.¹⁴ Indications for operative management include failure to wean from mechanical ventilation. Other indications for thoracotomy are flail chest with no associated contusion, severe dyspnea, and severe chest deformity, among others.^27,28

There is no standard operative approach for correction of a flail chest. Currently used techniques include wire cerclage, clamping, screw fixation, and intramedullary fixation.²⁹ The use of absorbable plates for rib trauma has also been described with good results.³⁰ The optimal surgical treatment in children is unclear given the required future growth of a child’s thoracic cavity. A multidisciplinary approach between pediatric surgeons, orthopedic surgeons, and critical care physicians is important.

Open Pneumothorax

Open pneumothorax (sucking chest wound) occurs when there is a gaping defect in the chest wall, and typically is caused by a blast injury, a severe avulsion injury, or an impalement (Fig. 15-1). This is not often seen in children but can be life threatening when it occurs. The negative pressure in the pleural cavity created by spontaneous breathing sucks air into the thorax. Air trapping results in collapse of the ipsilateral lung and mediastinal shift, similar to a tension pneumothorax. Treatment requires placement of an occlusive dressing to prevent further air from entering the chest cavity as well as chest tube or catheter insertion to drain a hemo/pneumothorax that may have developed.

Traumatic Asphyxia

Traumatic asphyxia is typically caused by a large compressive force against the chest wall combined with deep inspiration against a closed glottis (Valsalva maneuver). The increased thoracic pressure compresses the right atrium, excludes blood return from the superior vena cava, and results in rupture of venules and capillaries about the face and head.³¹ Patients will exhibit conjunctival hemorrhages, facial swelling, and petechial hemorrhages on the face and upper chest. Although severe cases may result in loss of vision or other permanent neurologic sequelae, the morbidity and mortality associated with traumatic asphyxia is generally related to the associated injuries. The majority of children who survive have good outcomes.^32,33

Pneumothorax–Pulmonary Lacerations

Pneumothorax may occur with a penetrating injury to the chest wall or air leak into the pleural space from a pulmonary laceration or disruption of the proximal airway. It is a relatively common finding in children with blunt and penetrating thoracic trauma. The air leak may dissect under the pleura to cause pneumomediastinum and subcutaneous emphysema. A simple pneumothorax is often asymptomatic because the lack of increased intrathoracic pressure limits the recognition of symptoms. For this reason, a screening CXR is an important component in the evaluation of thoracic injury in children. Air within the pleural cavity can layer anteriorly, posteriorly, or in the subpulmonic space. A simple pneumothorax can be easily missed on chest film, but can be found on a subsequent computed tomographic (CT) scan.³⁴ However, a recent study analyzing the utility of CT scan as a screening modality to replace initial CXR concluded that although a CT scan is highly sensitive, it should not be used as a primary imaging tool given its cost and the acceptable sensitivity of routine CXR.³⁵ Ultrasonography (US) is another diagnostic modality that has been shown to be nearly as sensitive as CT in determining the presence of an occult pneumothorax and has gained wide acceptance as a screening tool.^36,37

The need for intervention in the presence of a simple pneumothorax will depend on its severity and the child’s clinical condition. Some authors have suggested that if the volume of the pneumothorax is greater than 20% of the pleural space, then drainage is needed.³⁸ Although insertion of a chest tube can be considered appropriate in almost every circumstance of traumatic pneumothorax, there are alternatives to conventional chest tubes, such as pigtail catheters.³⁹ Additionally, there may be a benefit in treating with supplemental oxygen alone. The rationale for this therapy is that atmospheric gas (78% nitrogen) comprises the majority of the entrapped air collection. If the nitrogen level in the blood is ‘washed out’ by increased inspired oxygen, a nitrogen gradient will be created that will cause accelerated absorption of the air. Oxygen can be delivered by way of nasal cannula, a hood, or a mask. Treatment with supplemental oxygen may be required for 24 to 48 hours.

In contrast, a tension pneumothorax is a life-threatening condition that requires expeditious decompression. A tension pneumothorax likely causes symptoms initially from hypoxemia and later from increased intrapleural pressure with subsequent decreased venous return and cardiovascular collapse.⁴⁰ If the clinician suspects a tension pneumothorax in a patient with appropriate signs and symptoms, it is reasonable to proceed with decompression without waiting for a CXR. If rapid drainage of intrapleural air cannot be accomplished with a needle, insertion of a pigtail catheter or a chest tube should be performed. A tension pneumothorax treated initially with needle decompression will require chest tube or pigtail catheter insertion due to the continuing collection of air under pressure in the involved hemithorax. If one or both lungs have been compressed for a long time, re-expansion pulmonary edema may develop.⁴¹

Systemic air embolism can occur with any pulmonary parenchymal injury and increased intrabronchial pressure, creating a bronchopulmonary venous fistula.⁴² This is most often seen when positive-pressure ventilation is required to support the injured patient. Sudden neurologic findings or cardiovascular decompensation may be the initial sign that air has embolized to the coronary or cerebral vessels. If this complication is recognized, steps should be taken to prevent further air embolism. If possible, the removal of the intravascular air should be considered. Treatment options include tube thoracostomy, but more often an emergency thoracotomy will provide immediate reversal of the physiology promoting the air embolism. The hilum of the lung should be occluded to prevent further escape of air into the venous system, and operative control of the bronchial–venous interface should be obtained. The mortality associated with this complication is high.

Hemothorax

Hemothorax can result from blunt or penetrating injury to any of the intrathoracic vessels, the chest wall vessels, the pleura, or the pulmonary parenchyma. Occasionally, a rib fracture can lacerate an intercostal vessel or the lung. Rarely, the aorta or vena cava may be injured by pressure or shearing. Unless the volume of blood is large, a hemothorax may be asymptomatic. Smaller volumes may be more easily detected on CT scan, which also allows for measurement of Hounsfield density to aid in the diagnosis.⁴³ Each hemithorax can hold approximately 40% of a child’s blood volume and it is difficult to estimate the amount of blood loss on a CXR.⁴⁴ Prompt chest tube placement allows for evacuation of the blood from the pleural space and re-expansion of the lung. It also allows the surgeon to assess the volume of blood loss and whether the hemorrhage is ongoing.

There are instances in which an operation may be needed to stop ongoing intrathoracic bleeding. After tube thoracostomy, the immediate blood return of 15 mL/kg, or ongoing losses of 2–3 mL/kg/h for 3 or more hours, are indicators for thoracic exploration.45,46 If undrained, the hemothorax can become organized with the development of a fibrothorax that can cause a restrictive lung defect. This predisposes to atelectasis, ventilation–perfusion mismatching, and subsequent pneumonia.

Residual blood is also an excellent culture medium, and empyema and sepsis can result from infection of an undrained hemothorax. Tube thoracostomy may not adequately evacuate an organizing post-traumatic hemothorax in up to 12% of patients.⁴⁷ In this situation, thoracoscopy may be useful to evacuate the residual clot. Patients who undergo early thoracoscopy may experience less morbidity.^48,49 However, there are also data to suggest that thrombolytic therapy is equally effective in treating a chronic hemothorax.⁴⁷ The use of intrapleural tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) has also been used for the treatment of traumatic residual hemothoraces and other parapneumonic processes with good results.^50,51

Chylothorax

Chylothorax caused by injury to thoracic lymphatic channels is an uncommon complication from thoracic trauma. Chylothorax usually becomes evident three to seven days after injury. The diagnosis is made by obtaining a sample of the pleural fluid and identifying the lymphocyte and lipid content. Treatment includes drainage and either enteral feedings with medium-chain triglycerides or parenteral nutrition.

Pulmonary Contusion

One of the most common thoracic injuries in children is a pulmonary contusion, which can occur with blunt or penetrating trauma.¹