Psychology – 2

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46 Psychology – 2

	T	F
1. Modern social anthropology is concerned with ontogeny.
2. A person’s perceived tallness creates a positive attitude towards them.
3. In Western societies we attribute others’ behaviour to the context.
4. Attribution error involves an unstable/stable component.
5. The non-verbal communication gaze theory suggests that long glances occur before the speech ends.
6. The physical attractiveness of the speaker does not affect the reception of the message.
7. Cognitive consistency promotes problem solving.
8. Projective identification is a defence against unconscious anxiety.
9. Aggression is expressed in hierarchies in wild baboons.
10. The alpha male monkey performs ritualistic appeasement before mating.
11. According to Eysenck, extroverts have a more reactive reticular system.
12. Introversion is thought to be associated with autonomic lability.
13. Family size predicts delinquency.
14. Coercive power is rarely used in families.
15. Gestalt determinants of grouping include closure.
16. Open debate promotes group think phenomenon.
17. Decision-making in groups is influenced by majority opinion.
18. Cultural iatrogenesis refers to the side-effects of herbal remedies.
19. In autocratic leadership, productivity increases when the leader is away.
20. Leadership skills are independent of specific situations.
21. The theory of mind refers to the ability to understand the false beliefs of others.
22. Risk-taking behaviour is one of the ‘big five’ dimensions of personality.
23. Stigma is associated with actual, not perceived, status.
24. Japanese Americans migrating to the USA but maintaining their traditions are at increased risk of cardiovascular disease than those adapting to the local norms.
25. Having an appendicectomy is a significant life event.

ANSWERS

1. Modern social anthropology is concerned with ontogeny.

False: Social anthropology is the study of ethnological, ethnographic, linguistic, social and psychological development of human cultures.

Modern social anthropology is the comparative study of societies, and cultural and social variety. It focuses on small-scale social groups. Data is collected usually through participant observation.

Ontogeny or ontogenesis is the origin and development of an individual organism from embryo to adult.

2. A person’s perceived tallness creates a positive attitude towards them.

True: Attitude change may be incentive based or argument based. The status, expertise, personality, attractiveness, enthusiasm, motivation and non-verbal cues of the person presenting the information can modify the effectiveness of argument based persuasion (Fear 2004, p. 32; Munafo 2002, p. 66; Puri & Hall 2004, p. 50).

3. In Western societies we attribute others’ behaviour to the context.

False: The fundamental attribution error occurs when we explain the behaviour of others by attributing it to that individual’s personal or dispositional factors. When analysing our own behaviour we are more likely to blame behaviour on situational factors. This phenomenon may be more likely to happen in Western societies (Fear 2004, p. 32; Wright et al 2005, p. 80).

4. Attribution error involves an unstable/stable component.

False: The fundamental attribution error occurs when we explain the behaviour of others by attributing it to personal/dispositional rather than situational/environmental factors. This tends to make others’ behaviour seem more predictable which in turn enhances our sense of control over the environment. It does not involve a ‘stable/unstable’ component (Fear 2004, p. 32; Wright et al 2005, p. 80).

5. The non-verbal communication gaze theory suggests that long glances occur before the speech ends.

True: Speakers tend not to look at the person they are talking to unless they are attempting to impose their authority. When they come to the end of what they are saying they glance at the listener to signal that it is the listener’s turn to speak. Listeners tend to look at speakers (Hayes 1994, p. 516).

6. The physical attractiveness of the speaker does not affect the reception of the message.

False: Important aspects in communication include the speaker, the listener, the message and the context. Physically attractive speakers are more persuasive communicators. Other features of the speaker that influence communication include ability of the audience to identify with the speaker, credibility, expertise, motivation, non-verbal communication and being an opinion leader (Fear 2004, p. 32; Munafo 2002, p. 66; Puri & Hall 2004, p. 50).

7. Cognitive consistency promotes problem solving.

False: Cognitive dissonance refers to the discomfort caused by inconsistent cognitions, i.e. those which appear to conflict with one another. Cognitive consistency theory suggests that we strive to be consistent in our cognitions, attitudes, beliefs and behaviours in order to minimize this discomfort and that inconsistency or dissonance acts as an irritant or stimulus that motivates us to modify them until they become consistent. Thus, cognitive dissonance may promote problem solving (Atkinson et al 2000, pp. 621, 626; Wright et al 2005, p. 79).

8. Projective identification is a defence against unconscious anxiety.

True: According to Klein, in the first few months of life, the early ego experiences anxiety resulting from a fear of annihilation, which is a manifestation of the death instinct. The early ego deals with the anxiety by using defence mechanisms of splitting, projection, introjection and projective identification. In projective identification the infant in fantasy projects the bad aspects of the self onto the mother in an attempt not only to injure but also to control (Gelder et al 2000, p. 1885; Wright et al 2005, p. 544).

9. Aggression is expressed in hierarchies in wild baboons.

True: Aggression is a spontaneously generated force which helps maintain dominance hierarchies and aids the process of natural selection. Animals that live in groups often develop a social order based on dominance hierarchies. In baboons the dominant male usually achieves his status through victory in several threat displays and aggressive encounters. After this, his status is settled for a while and lower ranking baboons generally step aside for his convenience (Gleitman 1996, p. 302).

10. The alpha male monkey performs ritualistic appeasement before mating.

False: The alpha male chooses whom he mates with and when, and where he sleeps. He eats first. Everyone else steps aside for his convenience. He does not need to appease anyone (Gleitman 1996, p. 302).

11. According to Eysenck, extroverts have a more reactive reticular system.

False: According to Eysenck, introverts have a more reactive reticular system. They attain optimal levels of cortical arousal with low levels of stimulation. Extroverts have a less active reticular system and therefore they have to seek stimuli from outside in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal (Gelder et al 2000, p. 707; Wright et al 2005, p. 75).

12. Introversion is thought to be associated with autonomic lability.

False: According to Eysenck, neuroticism is related to a reactive limbic system and autonomic lability. Introverts have a more reactive reticular activating system (Gelder et al 2000, p. 707).

13. Family size predicts delinquency.

True: In the Cambridge Study, boys having four or more siblings by their 10th birthday had double the risk of being convicted as a juvenile. Large family size predicts self-reported delinquency as well as juvenile and adult convictions (Farrington 1995; Gelder et al 2000, p. 2032).

14. Coercive power is rarely used in families.

False: French & Raven (1960) described five types of power: coercive, reward, legitimate, referent and expert. Coercive power is the power to force someone to do something against his or her will. It involves using threats, punishments and withdrawal of rewards. Parents and governments use coercive power on children and citizens who know no better, in order to maintain peace and order (Munafo 2002, p. 76).

15. Gestalt determinants of grouping include closure.

True: Gestalt determinants of grouping include proximity, similarity, continuity and closure (Fear 2004, p. 8; Wright et al 2005, p. 67).

16. Open debate promotes group think phenomenon.

False: Group think, a term introduced by Irving Janice, refers to the phenomenon in which members of a group are led to suppress their own dissent in the interest of group consensus. Group think is facilitated by pressure on dissenters and self-censorship of dissent. Group think can be prevented by fostering open debate (Wright et al 2005, p. 81).

17. Decision-making in groups is influenced by majority opinion.

True: Even when the opinion of the majority of the group is obviously wrong, group members tend to conform to the majority consensus, especially when the majority of the group is unanimous in their (wrong) opinion. The tendency to agree with others is called conformity (Fear 2004, p. 35; Puri & Tyrer 1998, p. 321; Wright et al 2005, p. 80).

18. Cultural iatrogenesis refers to the side-effects of herbal remedies.

False: Illich considers cultural iatrogenesis to be the worst form of iatrogenesis. Jones (1994) described it as ‘the destruction of traditional ways of dealing with and making sense of death, pain and sickness and their replacement by a sanitized technological medical intervention against which individuals and society are unable to fight back’ (Fear 2004, p. 90; Illich 2001).

19. In autocratic leadership, productivity increases when the leader is away.

False: Lewin, in 1939, studied the effects of leadership styles adopted by their teacher on three groups of boys making models:

• Democratic: the boys got on well, were productive and worked alone

• Autocratic: the boys were aggressive and stopped working when the leader left, but were productive

• Laissez-faire: the boys were aggressive and did little work under any circumstances (Munafo 2002, p. 76).

20. Leadership skills are independent of specific situations.

False: Lewin described three leadership styles – autocratic (best in urgent situations), democratic (best overall unless highly original product required) and laissez-faire (best for creative, person orientated tasks). Thus, the qualities demanded of a leader depend on the situation (Puri & Hall 2004, p. 53; Puri & Tyrer 1998, p. 321).

21. The theory of mind refers to the ability to understand the false beliefs of others.

True: Theory of mind refers to the ability to know that self and others have mental states, and that these mental states may influence the way we think, feel and behave. Theory of mind typically develops between ages 3 and 4 years. Most children pass first order theory of mind tasks by age 4 years.

In the Sally–Anne test, a child watches two puppets, Sally and Anne. Sally puts a marble in a basket and goes out. While Sally is out, Anne moves the marble from the basket to a box and leaves the room. The child is asked where Sally will look for the marble when she re-enters the room. Most normal 3-year-olds fail the task, and say the box, as they know the marble is in the box. Most normal 4-year-olds will pass the task, saying Sally will act on her false belief and look in the basket. They can be said to have a first order ‘theory of mind’ – knowing how a person’s beliefs will make them act. Most normal children pass a second order theory of mind task (about what Mary thinks John thinks) at age 5–7 years. Most autistic children fail the Sally–Anne test; however, it is important to check that their mental age is at least 4 years. Those who lack theory of mind are unable to infer thoughts and motivations of others and therefore fail to predict others’ behaviour and adjust their own actions. This results in a lack of reciprocity in communication and social contact (Gelder et al 2000, p. 1726; Rutter & Taylor 2002, p. 647).

22. Risk-taking behaviour is one of the ‘big five’ dimensions of personality.

False: Goldberg and McCrae’s ‘big five’ personality dimensions include openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness and neuroticism. This gives the acronym OCEAN. They are stable, heritable, adaptive and universal dimensions. The outcome of therapy is better when the patient is aware of their position on these dimensions (Fear 2004, p. 17; Johnstone et al 2004, p. 112; Wright et al 2005, p. 76).

23. Stigma is associated with actual, not perceived, status.

False: Stigma is a label applied to individuals that implies association with undesirable characteristics and avoidance of that individual by others. It is therefore closely linked with how an individual is perceived rather than their actual status (Gelder et al 2000, p. 5; Johnstone et al 2004, p. 123).

24. Japanese Americans migrating to the USA but maintaining their traditions are at increased risk of cardiovascular disease than those adapting to the local norms.

False: The inverse is true (Egusa et al 2002).

25. Having an appendicectomy is a significant life event.

True: Holmes & Rahe’s (1967) Social Readjustment Rating Scale rates personal injury or illness at number 6, between death of a close family member and marriage.