Periodontal Considerations in the Evaluation and Treatment of Dentofacial Deformities

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Periodontal Considerations in the Evaluation and Treatment of Dentofacial Deformities

Degeneration of the periodontium is likely to accelerate in the presence of specific intrinsic biologic factors (i.e., the individual’s biotype or predisposition of the periodontium), including the following: (1) a baseline jaw discrepancy with malocclusion; (2) the crowding of the teeth (i.e., the dental roots) within limited alveolar bone; (3) a forced mouth-breathing pattern in combination with a limited ability to close the lips together (i.e., inadequate incisor coverage) caused by anterior skeletal vertical (height) excess; and (4) an inadequate amount of attached gingiva at the clinical crown interface of the teeth. When attempting to achieve a favorable alignment of the teeth in each arch as well as improved occlusion through orthodontic maneuvers, these factors should be considered. Additional compounding factors that may also negatively affect the periodontium include the following: (1) active infection or inflammation of the periodontium; (2) non-biologic restorations at the dental–gingival interface; (3) para-occlusal habits (e.g., bruxism, clenching); (4) the use of medications that effect the saliva (e.g., antipsychotics); (5) local toxins (e.g., nicotine); (6) poor oral hygiene; and (7) the effects of age.

Teeth

General Information (Fig. 6-1)

Teeth are hard structures that are made up of an enamel-covered surface called the crown and a cementum-covered surface called the root. The root of the tooth is attached to the alveolar bone (i.e., the jaw bone) via the periodontal ligament (PDL). Teeth are primarily used for chewing, speech, and swallowing. The maxillary and mandibular arches both contain teeth. Humans have two sets of teeth during their lifetimes: the deciduous teeth, which are also known as the primary dentition, and the permanent teeth, which are known as the secondary dentition. Between the ages of 6 and 12 years, there is a mixed dentition during which both the primary and permanent teeth are present in the oral cavity at the same time.

There are 20 total deciduous teeth, which are composed of two incisors, one canine, and two molars in each of the four quadrants of the oral cavity. Under normal circumstances, no deciduous teeth are present at birth. Generally, by the third year of life, all 20 deciduous teeth have erupted.

There are 32 total permanent teeth, which are composed of two incisors, one canine, two premolars, and three molars in each of the four quadrants of the oral cavity. Usually the first permanent tooth to erupt into the oral cavity is the mandibular first molar. The first molar typically erupts at approximately 6 years of age. The molar erupts distal to the primary dentition and behind the second primary molar. The primary teeth eventually are replaced by the permanent teeth. If a permanent tooth is congenitally absent, then the primary tooth typically remains in the arch for an extended period of time.

Descriptions of the Surfaces of the Teeth (Fig. 6-2)

Basic Anatomy of a Tooth (Fig. 6-3)

The Tissues of the Periodontium

The periodontium includes the investing and supporting tissues of the teeth. It consists of two parts: the attachment apparatus (the cementum, the alveolar bone, and the intervening PDL) and the dentogingival unit (the gingival connective tissue that inserts into the supracrestal cementum and the sulcular and junctional epithelium as well as the latter’s attachment to enamel) (Fig. 6-4). The cementum covers the root surfaces. It serves as the attachment for the fibers of the PDL to the tooth as does the (cortical) alveolar bone of the alveolar socket. The periodontium is affected by the individual’s unique maxillofacial skeletal anatomy, by functional (occlusal) forces, and by degenerative cellular changes that occur with age. The greatest modifier of the periodontium is inflammatory disease.

The oral epithelium consists of three zones (Figs. 6-5 and 6-6):

1. Masticatory mucosa (keratinized tissue): This includes the gingiva, the hard palate, and the dorsal surface of the tongue. The gingiva is a fibrous investing tissue that immediately surrounds and is contiguous with its PDL and with the mucosal tissues of the mouth. Keratinized epithelium also covers the hard palate.

2. Lining mucosa (non-keratinized tissue): This epithelium makes up the majority of the mucosa of the mouth and is the primary lining of the oral mucosa.

3. Specialized mucosa: This is found specifically in the regions of the taste buds on the dorsum of the tongue.

The gingiva is the part of the oral mucous membrane that covers the occlusal aspect of the alveolar processes of the jaws and that surrounds the necks of the teeth. The junctional epithelium and the connective tissue attachment have a characteristic dimension of 2 to 4 mm; this zone of tissue is called the biologic width. In general, an individual can only maintain health when the sulcus depth is no more than 3 to 4 mm. Greater depth provides a safe haven for bacteria that cannot be easily removed through normal oral hygiene maneuvers. A lower-than-average alveolar crest level is acceptable as long as it is stable (i.e., not progressive) and the periodontium is free of active disease. On the palatal surface of the teeth, the attached gingiva blends with the equally firm and highly keratinized palatal (masticatory) mucosa. The interdental gingiva occupies the gingival embrasure (i.e., the interproximal space beneath the area of tooth contact). It consists of the facial papilla, the lingual papilla, and the valley-like depression that connects the two in the interproximal contact area, which is called the col. In the absence of proximal tooth contact, the gingiva is firmly bound over the interdental bone; it forms a smooth, round surface without a triangular interdental papilla. The connective tissue of the gingiva is densely collagenous, and it contains collagen fiber bundles called gingival fibers (Fig. 6-7). When these fiber bundles insert into the tooth’s cementum, they are called Sharpey’s fibers, and they result in the mechanical attachment of the sulcular and supracrestal (i.e., crestal to the alveolar process) gingiva. These fibers are able to withstand masticatory forces without deflection or detachment from the tooth surface. The connective tissue attachments extend from just apical to the junctional epithelium of the sulcular (crevicular) gingiva to the supracrestal cementum of the root.

The junctional epithelium is connected to the tooth surface via a hemidesmosomal adhesion. These two ectodermal tissues and their interface act to block the flow of toxic chemicals and organisms from the oral cavity into the body.

The gingival sulcus contains a fluid that is derived from the gingival connective tissue and that flows through the thin epithelium of the sulcular wall. The gingival fluid is cleansing, and it contains sticky plasma proteins to increase the adhesion of the epithelial attachment to the tooth. The fluid possesses antimicrobial properties, and it is active in its defense of the gingiva. It may also serve as a medium for bacterial growth, which contributes to the formation of dental plaque and calculus. The amount of gingival fluid (exudate) increases with inflammation. The composition of gingival fluid has many similarities to that of blood serum.

The attached gingiva is continuous with the marginal gingiva, and it consists of stratified squamous epithelium and an underlying connective tissue stroma. The superficial layer is keratinized, parakeratinized, or both. The connective tissue of the gingiva is known as the lamina propria. It is densely collagenous, with few elastic fibers, and it consists of two layers: a papillary layer next to the epithelium and a reticular layer next to the periosteum of the alveolar process.

Each interdental papilla consists of a central core of densely collagenous connective tissue covered by stratified squamous epithelium. The facial and lingual papillae are joined with the connective tissue of the col and the stratified squamous epithelium from the adjacent interdental papillae. The epithelium of the col is not keratinized and therefore more susceptible to inflammation. The shape of the interdental gingival papillae correlates with the shape of the teeth and the embrasures. The interdental papillae may be broad or narrow, depending on dental positioning and points of connection.

In a normal physiologic state, the gingiva is firm and resilient. With the exception of the movable free margins (i.e., the marginal gingiva), it is tightly bound to the underlying bone. This is the result of the collagenous nature of the lamina propria and its integration with the periosteum of the alveolar process. The visual stippling that is seen when viewing the gingival surface represents the pulling of the superficial gingival layer by the tight connective tissue attachments to the underlying alveolar process.

The Periodontal Ligament

The PDL is the connective tissue structure that surrounds the root and that connects the root with the bone in the tooth socket. It is continuous with the connective tissue of the gingiva, and it communicates with the bone through vascular channels. The principal fibers of the PDL are collagenous organized bundles that insert into the cementum on one side and into the bone on the other side; they are called Sharpey’s fibers. Cellular elements of the PDL include fibroblasts, endothelial cells, cementoblasts, osteoblasts, osteoclasts, tissue macrophages, and stratified epithelial cells. The PDL has physical, formative, nutritional, and sensory functions. These include the physical functions of the transmission of occlusal forces to the bone, the attachment of the teeth to the bone, the maintenance of the gingival tissues in relationship to the teeth, the resistance to the impact of occlusal forces, and the protection of the vessels and nerves from injury by mechanical forces. Destruction of the PDL and the alveolar bone by disease or injury disrupts the balance between the periodontium and the occlusal forces. The PDL supplies nutrients to the cementum, the bone, and the gingiva through the blood vessels; it also provides lymphatic drainage to the same structures. The innervation of the PDL provides proprioception and tactile sensitivity. The PDL includes transseptal, alveolar–crestal, oblique, and apical oriented fibers.

Cementum

Cementum is the calcified mesenchymal tissue that forms the outer covering of the tooth root. There are two types of cementum: acellular and cellular. Both consist of a calcified interfibrillar matrix and collagen fibrils. The cellular type contains cementocytes in individual spaces (lacunae) that allow for communication with each other through a system of canaliculi. There are two types of collagen fibers. The first type is Sharpey’s fibers, which are the principal fibers of the PDL and which are formed by fibroblasts. The second group of fibers is thought to be produced by the cementoblasts and to form an interfibrillar substance. The distribution of acellular and cellular cementum varies. The coronal half of the root is usually covered by the acellular type of cementum, whereas the cellular cementum is more common in the apical half of the root. The inorganic content of cementum includes hydroxyapatite, a carbohydrate–protein complex, and acid mucopolysaccharides.

The relationship of the interface between the cementum and the enamel at the crown–root interface varies. Cementum overlaps the enamel in about two thirds of cases. In the other third, there is an edge-to-edge arrangement in which a small percentage of the cementum and the enamel fail to meet.

When cementum resorption occurs, it is seen microscopically as concavities on the root surface. Multinucleated giant cells and large mononuclear macrophages are generally found adjacent to the cementum that is undergoing active resorption. The resorptive process may extend into the underlying dentin and even into the pulp. In a physiologic setting, embedded fibers of the PDL reestablish a functional relationship in the new cementum. Cementum repair requires the presence of viable connective tissue. If epithelium proliferates into an area of cementum, then resorption rather than repair will likely take place. Fusion of the cementum and the alveolar bone with obliteration of the PDL is termed ankylosis. When ankylosis does occur, it generally happens after chronic periapical inflammation, tooth replantation, or significant occlusal trauma. It may also represent a congenital failure of eruption.

The anatomic root is the portion of the tooth that is normally covered by cementum. The anatomic crown is the portion of the tooth that is covered by enamel. The clinical crown is the part of the tooth that includes the anatomic part of the crown and the part of the root that has been denuded of periodontium and that is visible in the oral cavity. The clinical root is that portion of the tooth that remains covered by periodontal tissues (i.e., the PDL, the cementum, and the gingiva). Exposure of the root via the apical migration of the gingiva margin is called gingival recession. Exposure of the root to the oral cavity via the apical migration of the junctional epithelium without apical migration of the gingival margin results in pocketing. In either case, periodontal degenerative changes result in the permanent exposure of connective tissue (i.e., the dentin and the cementum) to the external environment.

The Alveolar Bone

All parts of the alveolar process serve to support the teeth. Occlusal forces are transmitted through the PDL to the inner wall of the alveolus, which is then supported by the cancellous trabeculae. The cancellous trabeculae in turn are buttressed by the labial and lingual cortical plates. The alveolar process is the bone that supports the tooth socket, and it consists of the following:

The alveolar process consists of calcified matrix with osteocytes that are enclosed within spaces called lacunae. The canaliculi form an anastomosing system through the intercellular matrix of the bone, which brings oxygen and nutrients to the osteocytes and which removes metabolic waste products. In the cancellous trabeculae, the matrix is arranged in lamellae that are demarcated from each other by prominent cement linings. The compact alveolar bone (i.e., the bony lining of the alveolus) consists of closely arranged lamellae and Haversian systems. The principal fibers of the PDL that anchor the tooth in the socket are embedded into the alveolar bone and are referred to as Sharpey’s fibers. The socket wall consists of dense laminated bone. The cancellous portion of the alveolar bone consists of trabeculae, which enclose irregularly shaped marrow spaces that are lined with a layer of thin, flattened ostial cells.

The bony wall of the tooth socket appears radiographically as a thin radiopaque line; it is called the lamina dura. The alveolar bone is perforated by numerous channels that contain blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves, which link the PDL with the cancellous portion of the alveolar bone. The vascular supply of the bone is derived from blood vessels in the PDL and in the marrow spaces and from small branches of peripheral vessels that penetrate the cortical plates. The interdental septum consists of cancellous bone that is bordered by the socket walls of approximating teeth and the facial and lingual cortical plates.

The mesiodistal angulation of the crest of the interdental septum parallels a line drawn between the CEJs of the approximating teeth. The average distance between the crest of the alveolar bone and the CEJ in the mandibular anterior region in an individual who is periodontally healthy is approximately 1 mm. With disease progression, the distance between the bone ridge and the CEJ increases throughout the mouth.

The alveolar bone contour normally conforms to the prominence of the roots of the teeth, with regions of mild depression in between. The height and thickness of the facial and lingual bony plates are affected by the alignment of the teeth and the angulation of the roots in the bone. For example, in the patient with mandibular deficiency and excessive incisor procumbency, the labial bone may be thin, and apical migration may be seen along the tooth surface. When the mandibular incisor teeth are lingually positioned (i.e., skeletal Class III), the facial bony plate is generally thicker than normal. Another example is seen when the maxillary molar roots are at acute angles to the palatal bone. The effects of the root location and angulation result in recession of the marginal bone.

An isolated area in which a tooth root is denuded of labial cortical bone, the root surface is covered only by periosteum and overlying gingiva, and the marginal bone remains intact is termed fenestration. An area of the tooth root in which there is denuded bone and where the root surface is covered only by periosteum where the root denudation extends to the margin is called dehiscence. Dehiscences are more common on the labial surface of the lower anterior teeth and on the molars and premolars of the maxilla. Congenital or developmental jaw hypoplasia with dental crowding and trauma from occlusal treatments or orthodontics are common etiologic factors for fenestrations and dehiscences.

Alveolar bone is a structure that is constantly in a state of flux. It is maintained by a delicate balance between bone formation and bone resorption, and it is controlled by local and systemic influences. Bone is resorbed in areas of pressure and deposited in areas of tension. With age and normal occlusal forces, there is a tendency for the mesial migration of the teeth. As a result, the associated alveolar bone is remodeled via resorption and deposition.

The purpose of the alveolar process is to support the teeth both while they are at rest and while they are functioning. Its structure is dependent on the stimulation that it receives from masticatory function, because it undergoes constant remodeling in response to occlusal forces. When force is applied to a tooth, that force is displaced against the resilient PDL, thereby creating areas of tension and compression. The facial and lingual walls of the tooth socket bend in the direction of the force. When the force is released, the tooth, the PDL, and the bone spring back toward their original positions. In response to these forces, osteoblasts and newly formed osteoid will line the socket in areas of tension, whereas osteoclasts position themselves and resorption occurs in areas of pressure. The bone trabeculae are aligned in the path of the tension and compressive stresses to provide maximum resistance to the occlusal force with the minimum of bone substance. Forces that exceed the adaptive capacity of the bone produce injury. When occlusal forces are increased, the cancellous trabeculae also increase in number and thickness to provide necessary support.

Aging and the Periodontium

The prevalence of periodontal disease with tissue destruction and the loss of teeth and tooth structure tends to increase with age.106,155,160,171 Another consequence of age is reduced tissue elasticity through the degeneration of the elastic fibers. Hormonal changes also occur, and these change the local tissue environment. Traditional thinking is that the degenerative gingival changes associated with aging may include recession, diminished keratinization, reduced stippling, decreased connective tissue cellularity, increased intercellular substances, and reduced oxygen consumption. In the PDL, degenerative aging effects are thought to include a decrease in elastic fibers and a decrease in vascularity and mitotic activity. If these effects occur, the ability of the alveolar bone to withstand occlusal forces is diminished. Frequent changes in tooth structure with age are seen, including occlusal wear with a loss of enamel substance that reduces cusp height and inclination. The degree of attrition is influenced by the masticatory musculature, the consistency of the food eaten, and occlusal factors and habits such as clenching and bruxism. A degree of continued tooth eruption usually occurs as teeth wear. As a result, the clinical crown may become longer, which creates further leverage on the bone with masticatory forces. An opposing factor is the fact that the clinical crowns are simultaneously reduced through attrition, often with an equilibrium or balance being present between the teeth and their bony support. The wear of the teeth along the proximal surfaces may also occur, which results in mesial migration. On average, proximal wear reduces the anteroposterior length of the dental arch by approximately 5 mm by the age of 40 years and by twice that by life’s end. When chronic periodontal disease is added to physiologic degenerative aging, the destructive response of the periodontium is exacerbated. There may be continued gingival recession, attrition, and the reduction of alveolar bone height as a result of a combination of these factors.31

Etiology of Periodontal Disease

Gingivitis and Periodontitis

Inflammation of the gingiva, which is also known as gingivitis, is the most common form of gingival disease (Figs. 6-8 through 6-12).1,19,177,183,216 This occurs as a result of local irritants, such as the toxins released by the microorganisms related to dental plaque and calculus. Foreign bodies (e.g., orthodontic appliances, irregular dental restorations) may also serve as local irritants as well as plaque traps. The inflammation caused by local irritants can result in ulcerative, necrotic, and proliferative changes in the gingival tissues.29,30,34,99,165,170,221 When there is deepening of the gingival sulcus, there can be injury to the supporting periodontal tissues; this may become an irreversible process. With continued inflammation, hyperplastic changes of the gingiva occur, and the crest of the gingival margin extends toward the crown. Inflammation causes a proliferation of and a change in the quality of the sulcus and the junctional epithelium such that their normal protective nature becomes dysfunctional. The sulcus becomes a pocket; ulceration through the epithelial barrier with exposure of the underlying connective tissue to the oral cavity is a frequent occurrence. The organisms and their toxins are then able to access the exposed connective tissue, which undergoes further pathologic changes.93,133,135,154,193 As the process continues, the epithelial junction may separate from the root, and the pocket will migrate downward. The epithelium of the lateral wall of the pocket proliferates with inflammatory tissue, which results in varying degrees of degeneration and necrosis. Intrabony periodontal pockets are said to be present when the base is apical to the level of the alveolar bone. The extension of inflammation from the margin of the gingiva into the supporting periodontal tissues marks the transition from gingivitis to periodontitis.6,40,41,107,117,175,200 The essential problem of periodontal disease is the destruction of alveolar bone with a loss of crestal height and PDL destruction. If periodontal disease is left untreated, it will lead to the loosening and loss of the teeth.

Trauma from Occlusion

Occlusal forces affect the condition and structure of the periodontium.53,54,59,104,129,134,160,181,191,204 To remain structurally and metabolically sound, the PDLs and the alveolar bone require the mechanical stimulation of occlusal forces. When occlusal forces exceed the adaptive capacity of the tissue, injury occurs. The injury that occurs to the periodontium is called trauma from occlusion, and it can be classified as either primary or secondary occlusal trauma. Primary occlusal trauma occurs when greater-than-normal occlusal forces are placed on teeth with a normal periodontal attachment apparatus (i.e., those that are periodontally stable). Secondary occlusal trauma occurs when normal occlusal forces are placed on teeth with compromised periodontal attachment (i.e., those with periodontal disease).

The periodontium attempts to accommodate the functional demands that are placed on it by the masticatory system. The adaptive capacity of the periodontium varies from person to person. The periodontium is influenced by the severity, direction, frequency, and duration of the force that is put on it and the patient’s specific anatomy. The principal fibers of the PDL are arranged so that they can best accommodate occlusal forces in the long axis of the tooth. Forces that are not aligned well with the tooth’s load-bearing capacity place increased compression on specific locations of the PDL. This may result in resorption of bone, depending on the extent and duration of the occlusal force. If the trauma is excessive, a destructive change in the periodontium will occur. If the injurious force is relieved rapidly enough, repair rather than destruction will occur. When trauma is combined with active infection, rapid irreversible destruction of the periodontium is more likely. The degree to which these factors interact and cause destruction remains controversial. There is a need for ongoing clinical research to clarify these issues.

Traditional thinking is that trauma from occlusion is caused by alterations in the occlusal forces, the reduced capacity of the periodontium to withstand what would otherwise be considered normal, or both. Malocclusion is a risk factor for occlusal trauma, but damage may also occur in the presence of a “normal” occlusion. Trauma from occlusion refers to the tissue injury rather than the specific occlusion. Increased masticatory forces are not traumatic if the periodontium can accommodate them. Trauma from occlusion and inflammation from an infectious or foreign-body process are different pathologic processes that can occur either in isolation or together. Inflammation typically starts in the gingiva and then spreads into the supporting periodontal tissues. Trauma from occlusion causes pathologic change of the attachment apparatus. When this occurs in the presence of inflammatory processes, these two pathogenic factors may act synergistically to cause greater damage to the periodontium than the sum of each factor’s singular effect. These combined components are called co-destructive factors.

The histopathologic lesion of occlusal trauma is called the lesion of the attachment apparatus, and it is characterized by the following:

The lesion of the attachment apparatus can occur and progress rapidly. It is believed that, when the lesion interacts with plaque-induced inflammatory responses, then the loss of the periodontium is likely to be accelerated.

Effects of Orthodontic Appliances and Tooth Movement Forces

Tooth movement during orthodontic therapy is the result of controlled forces placed on the teeth and then transmitted to the PDL. Strong or heavy forces (i.e., forces that far exceed capillary blood pressure) result in the crushing of the PDL on the compression side of the tooth, with local ischemia and degeneration (i.e., hyalinization). Moderate forces that exceed capillary blood pressure result in the compression of the PDL with a delay in bone resorption and the movement of the tooth.89 Light continuous forces that are less than the capillary blood pressure result in only limited ischemia to the PDL, with gradual bone resorption on the compression side.174 The patient’s age is not a contraindication to orthodontic treatment per se. Interestingly, in the adult, the hyalinized (necrotic) zones are formed more readily on the pressure side of the orthodontically moving tooth; this will temporarily slow tooth movement.62 The hyalinized zone is soon eliminated with the reorganization of the tissues, first through the resorption of the marrow spaces (thus undermining resorption) and then through the repair of the PDL and finally of the alveolar bone.172 The anticipated regeneration of the PDL on the compression side and the formation of new bone on the tension side will likely be hampered by the presence of active inflammation in the periodontal tissues (i.e., periodontitis).169 This pathologic response is dependent on how long the PDL remains compromised. This is the reason why inflammation should be controlled through effective periodontal treatment before orthodontic tooth movement.*

Until the mid 1980s, heavy intermittent orthodontic forces were routinely used, and this required patient visits every 3 to 4 weeks.176 This allowed the hyalinized fibers to recover before another heavy orthodontic force was applied. Contemporary orthodontics involves the use of light, continuous force. This moves the teeth with less discomfort and more rapidly, and it also allows visits to be spaced at longer intervals.

In a patient with a periodontally compromised dentition and with a baseline loss of alveolar bone, the center of resistance of the involved teeth moves apically.141,157 The net effect is that the involved teeth are more prone to tipping rather than to bodily movement when orthodontic forces are applied. To achieve improvement in the periodontium, orthodontic treatment requires a combination of light controlled forces as well as the movement of teeth more completely into the alveolar housing. In the presence of active disease, orthodontic therapy should be postponed until effective periodontal treatment is accomplished. This approach to orthodontic tooth movement has been shown to improve any preexisting compromised periodontium.

Interestingly, the orthodontic movement of endodontically treated teeth is not a risk factor to the periodontium, because the response of the PDL is not affected by the pulp. Some studies do indicate that endodontically treated teeth are slightly more prone to root resorption during orthodontic treatment as compared with teeth with normal vitality.

Teeth that are already tipped outside of the cortical plate (e.g., proclined mandibular incisors in the individual with Class II malocclusion) and that are orthodontically uprighted into sound alveolar housing are likely to improve in overall periodontal health, even when the gingiva levels remain borderline. Animal studies indicate that, without the presence of plaque, orthodontic forces on the teeth do not in themselves induce gingivitis.67 In the presence of plaque, however, similar forces can cause angular bone defects and, with tipping or torquing movements, gingival attachment loss (i.e., recession) can occur.6870 Clinical studies have demonstrated that, with adequate plaque control, even teeth with longstanding reduced periodontal support can undergo successful tooth movement without further compromise.63 In patients with no active periodontal disease and with good oral hygiene—and even in adults with reduced but healthy residual periodontium—physiologic orthodontic treatment causes no significant detrimental long-term effects on the periodontal attachment, including the bone levels. Physiologic tooth movement involves light forces and the movement of teeth into (not outside of) alveolar bone.3739

In a cross-sectional study, radiographic crestal bone levels in adults (N = 104) who completed orthodontic treatment at least 10 years previously were shown to be no different than those of matched control subjects (N = 76).161 In a 2-year post orthodontic study, Trosello and colleagues compared adult women who had multi-banded orthodontic therapy (N = 30) with age-matched (non-orthodontically treated) controls (N = 30).203 It was found that the orthodontically treated patients had a higher prevalence of root resorption (17% versus 2%), although there was a lower prevalence of mucogingival defects (5% versus 12%). The root resorption differences were most common in the maxillary incisors, followed by the mandibular incisors. It appears that, in adults, when biologically sound orthodontic maneuvers are carried out, minimal detrimental effects on the health of the periodontium occur. In the short term, gingivitis and gingival hyperplasia may occur, but there is no attachment loss or irreversible effects. In the long term, when the teeth are moved into (not out of) the alveolar bone, mild root resorption (i.e., 1.0 to 1.5 mm) may be documented, but attachment loss (i.e., irreversible change) only occurs in areas of active periodontitis.

It is known that plaque is the primary etiologic factor of gingivitis. A patient’s inability to clean adequately around orthodontic devices (e.g., banded teeth, brackets, wires, springs, coils, elastics, plates) will promote plaque accumulation, which can lead to gingival inflammation. Before the extensive use of bonded brackets, overgrowth of anaerobes in the patient’s sulcus was typical.57 Fortunately, the common practice of placing numerous subgingival orthodontic bands in each quadrant has gone by the wayside. Nevertheless, a shift in the subgingival microflora to a more pathogenic population that is similar to what is seen in periodontal disease sites may occur with use of orthodontic devices.131 Even without banded bracket appliances, an active and diligent oral hygiene program for the patient that includes frequent periodic checkups by an appropriate dentist is required throughout orthodontic treatment.

Dental Restorations: Gingival Interface

The relationship between bacterial plaque accumulation and gingival inflammation has been documented since at least the 1960s.132 A patient’s susceptibility to gingival inflammation is not based solely on the mere quantity of dental plaque but also on the virulence of the resident plaque microorganisms. The bacterial composition of dental plaque is dynamic, and the pathogenicity of each specific organism is subject to change over time. It is a dental dictum that creating a confluent restorative–gingival interface is an important factor that allows patients’ oral hygiene efforts to reduce the accumulation of plaque and microorganisms and to decrease—if not eliminate—the resulting gingivitis. For this reason, emphasis should be placed on the marginal integrity of dental restorations; the coronal contour of the restoration; the embrasure and contact; and the marginal location of the restoration. The proper marginal location of a restoration relative to the alveolar bone is thought to be one of the most important parameters for achieving and maintaining long-term gingival health.92,124126,139 Similarly, all patients who are undergoing dental therapy should be philosophically taught and technically trained to perform effective plaque-removal practices.

Assessing the Individual’s Biologic and Anatomic Risk Factors

Destruction of the periodontium is more likely to occur in the presence of known risk factors. Specific risk factors include 1) infection, 2) primary occlusal trauma, 3) iatrogenic causes, and 4) intrinsic biologic anatomic aspects. The known intrinsic (unique to the individual) biologic anatomic risk factors for periodontal disease may be referred to as the individual’s biotype (Figs. 6-13 through 6-29). These factors include the following:

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Figure 6-13 A 50-year-old man was referred by his general dentist to an orthodontist, who then referred the patient for surgical evaluation. The patient had a history of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis with temporomandibular joint involvement. There is condylar erosion with loss of posterior facial height with retrusion and clockwise rotation of the mandible, which resulted in a Class II anterior open-bite malocclusion. Adequate painless vertical mouth opening is present, and no symptomatic temporomandibular disorder is present. Over the years, there has been destruction of the dentition and the periodontal apparatus with a degree of labial bone loss and gingival recession. At referral to this surgeon, the patient had a history that documented heavy snoring, restless sleeping, and daytime somnolence. An attended polysomnogram confirmed a respiratory disturbance index of 10 events per hour. There is intranasal obstruction as a result of septal deviation and inferior turbinate enlargement, a retropositioned palate as a result of maxillary retrusion, and a retropositioned tongue as a result of mandibular retrusion. The soft palate and the tongue are normal with regard to function and size. The patient had previously undergone tonsillectomy. His biologic and anatomic risk factors for periodontal disease include inadequate alveolar bone (i.e., an inadequate alveolar bone/dental root ratio); nasal obstruction and mouth breathing with lip incompetence; and malocclusion with secondary trauma. A comprehensive approach was recommended to address the patient’s upper airway and breathing difficulties, his occlusion issues and his long-term dental health, and his facial aesthetics. A, Frontal facial and occlusal views before treatment. B, Profile facial view and lateral cephalometric radiograph before treatment. C, Panorex radiograph before treatment.

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Figure 6-15 A 16-year-old boy was born with Stickler syndrome, which is a type II collagen mutation. At the time of his birth, the Pierre-Robin sequence was appreciated. The patient underwent repair of the cleft palate before he was 1 year old. He had positive eye findings and required the treatment of a retinal detachment during his teenage years; a small cataract is being followed. He arrived for the evaluation of a jaw deformity and malocclusion, which were characterized by maxillomandibular deficiency with anterior open-bite malocclusion. This was combined with chronic obstructive nasal breathing and a long face growth pattern. Attempted growth modification and camouflage orthodontics earlier in life were ineffective. There was generalized root deficiency throughout the maxillary and mandibular dentition, likely as a result of the collagenopathy. The patient agreed to an orthodontic and surgical approach. Further orthodontic (dental) decompensation was cautiously carried out as a result of the compromised periodontal apparatus. The procedures included maxillary Le Fort I osteotomy in segments (vertical intrusion, horizontal advancement, and arch expansion); bilateral sagittal split ramus osteotomies (horizontal advancement and limited counterclockwise rotation); osseous genioplasty (vertical shortening and horizontal advancement); and septoplasty, inferior turbinate reduction, and nasal floor recontouring. A, Frontal views with smile before and after treatment. B, Profile views before and after treatment. C, Occlusal views before retreatment, with orthodontics in progress, and then after treatment. D, Articulated dental casts that indicate analytic model planning.

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Figure 6-20 A 31-year-old man arrived for surgical evaluation. Since the mixed dentition, he was known to have a jaw deformity that was characterized as a maxillary deficiency with relative mandibular excess growth pattern. This results in an Angle Class III, negative overjet, anterior open bite, constricted arch-width malocclusion. The patient is congenitally missing the mandibular first premolars, and he has retained primaries. This surgeon had originally seen him 10 years earlier, when he was 21 years old. An orthodontic and surgical approach was recommended at that time. The patient then declined treatment, but, during the next 10 years, there was further labial bone loss and gingival recession of the mandibular anterior and maxillary posterior dentition. A comprehensive periodontal, orthodontic, and surgical approach was now recommended. The patient had generalized recession, localized minimal attached gingiva, and significant root exposure of teeth nos. 3, 4, 5, 12, 13, and 14. Subepithelial connective tissue grafting was recommended. This is to be followed by orthodontic decompensation and jaw surgery. The procedures are to include Le Fort I osteotomy in three segments (correction of the curve of Spee and the arch width) and bilateral sagittal split ramus osteotomies. A, Frontal view with smile and occlusal views at age 21. B, Frontal view with smile and occlusal views at age 31. C, Profile facial view and maxillofacial i-CAT image that indicate limited alveolar bone covering the roots of the teeth.

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Figure 6-21 A 32-year-old man arrived for the evaluation of a longstanding jaw deformity with malocclusion, chronic obstructive nasal breathing, and periodontal issues. Since his early childhood years, he was known to have a maxillary deficiency with a relative mandibular excess growth pattern. The family elected a camouflage orthodontic approach in an attempt to neutralize the occlusion when the patient was 9 to 13 years old. He is a forced mouth breather with increased nasal airway resistance as a result of septal deviation and turbinate hypertrophy. His general dentist confirmed labial bone loss and gingival recession of the mandibular anterior and maxillary posterior dentition. He was referred to this surgeon, and a comprehensive orthognathic and dental approach was approved. Consultation with a periodontist, an orthodontist, and an ear, nose, and throat specialist was carried out. The patient was confirmed to have deviation of the septum and enlarged inferior turbinates. An attended polysomnogram is pending. The need for gingival grafting to attain improved root coverage and to generate a wider band of attachment was recommended for teeth nos. 3, 11, 14, 19, 20, 23 through 26, and 29 and 30. This will be followed by the orthodontic removal of dental compensation, including the extraction of a mandibular incisor to address the severe bone loss and gingival recession. Orthognathic and intranasal procedures to improve long-term dental health, to enhance facial aesthetics, and to open the upper airway will follow. A, Frontal facial and occlusal views before treatment. B, Panorex radiograph with treatment in progress.

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Figure 6-22 A 30-year-old man arrived for the evaluation of a longstanding jaw deformity with malocclusion, chronic obstructive nasal breathing, and awareness of periodontal issues. Since his early childhood years, he was known to have a jaw deformity with malocclusion that included an anterior open bite. When he was between 8 and 12 years old, he underwent orthodontic camouflage treatment in an attempt to close the open bite, including full bracketing and the use of heavy anterior elastics. By the time he graduated from high school, he was conscious of a significant recurrent anterior open bite with dental crowding. Through his college years, he was aware of gingival recession on the labial aspect of many of the anterior teeth; this was apparent on the maxilla more so than on the mandible. He was sent by his general dentist for an orthodontic evaluation and then to this surgeon for an opinion. He was referred for periodontal evaluation to confirm significant labial bone loss of the anterior dentition (on the maxilla more than the mandible) with gingival recession. A comprehensive approach was recommended, including gingival grafting and four bicuspid extractions with orthodontic retraction of the anterior dentition into solid alveolar bone. This would be followed by jaw reconstruction, finishing orthodontics, and periodontal surveillance. A, Frontal facial and occlusal views before retreatment. B, Profile facial view and lateral cephalometric radiograph before retreatment. C, Panorex radiograph before retreatment.

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Figure 6-23 A 34-year-old man arrived for the evaluation of a longstanding jaw deformity with malocclusion, chronic obstructive nasal breathing, and periodontal issues. Since his early childhood years, he was known to have a maxillary deficiency with relative mandibular excess growth pattern. The family elected a camouflage orthodontic approach that included four bicuspid extractions and the introduction of dental compensation in an attempt to neutralize the occlusion when the patient was 10 to 15 years old. He is a forced mouth breather as a result of the increased nasal airway resistance. He underwent septoplasty when he was 20 years old, but this did not result in significant improvement. His general dentist confirmed labial bone loss and gingival recession of the mandibular anterior and maxillary posterior dentition. He was referred to this surgeon, and a comprehensive orthognathic and dental approach was recommended. Consultation with the periodontist, the orthodontist, and the ear, nose, and throat specialist was carried out. The patient was confirmed to have residual deviation of the septum and enlarged inferior turbinates, which explained the continued difficulty that he had breathing through his nose. A degree of root resorption of the anterior dentition was likely the result of previous orthodontic mechanics. The need for gingival grafting to attain as much root coverage as possible and to generate a wider band of attachment was recommended for teeth nos. 3, 11, 14, 19, 20, 23 through 26, and 29 and 30. This will be followed by the orthodontic removal of dental compensation and then orthognathic and intranasal procedures to improve the patient’s long-term dental health, to enhance his facial aesthetics, and to open his upper airway. A, Frontal facial and occlusal views before treatment. B, Profile facial view and lateral cephalometric radiograph before treatment. C, Panorex radiograph with treatment in progress.

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Figure 6-27 A 50-year-old woman was referred by her general dentist to an orthodontist and then for surgical evaluation. There was a mandibular deficiency and a constricted upper jaw growth pattern. This resulted in a Class II deep-bite excess overjet malocclusion. Over the years, there was destruction to the dentition and periodontal apparatus with generalized bone loss and gingival recession. The patient was now under the care of a restorative dentist and a periodontist. To resolve the malocclusion, maxillary expansion and mandibular advancement in combination with orthodontics were recommended. At referral to this surgeon, a history documented heavy snoring, restless sleeping, and daytime somnolence. An attended polysomnogram confirmed a respiratory disturbance index of 42.7 events per hour. There was intranasal obstruction caused by septal deviation and inferior turbinate enlargement, a retropositioned palate caused by maxillary retrusion, and a retropositioned tongue as a result of mandibular retrusion. The soft palate and the tongue were of normal size and function. There were minimum tonsil and adenoid structures. Continuous positive airway pressure was tried but not well tolerated. Surgery was agreed to in combination with orthodontics to improve the malocclusion and to open the airway. The procedures carried out included a maxillary Le Fort I osteotomy (horizontal advancement, vertical lengthening, and arch form correction); bilateral sagittal split osteotomies of the mandible (horizontal advancement); osseous genioplasty (horizontal advancement); septoplasty and inferior turbinate reduction; and an anterior approach to the neck (cervical flap elevation, neck defatting, and vertical platysma muscle plication). Subjectively, there was good relief of snoring and restless sleeping as well as the resolution of daytime fatigue. Six months after surgery, an attended polysomnogram confirmed the resolution of the obstructive sleep apnea with a respiratory disturbance index of 1.9 events per hour and minimum desaturation (see Fig. 26-8). A, Frontal facial and occlusal views before treatment. B, Profile facial view and lateral cephalometric radiograph before treatment.

The individual’s biotype may pose risk factors for periodontal tissue loss. These risk factors can often be overcome or at least managed through surgical, orthodontic, and dental interventions; meticulous home care; and the avoidance of toxins such as tobacco, certain medications, and certain chemicals.

Effects of Inadequate Attached Gingiva

There are significant intrinsic biologic variations between humans with respect to the morphologic characteristics of the gingiva; this is known as the gingival biotype.52,73,138 The evaluation of the individual’s gingival biotype is important to orthodontic treatment planning, because thick and thin gingival biotypes are frequently associated with varied osseous patterns. These two tissue types are likely to respond very differently to similar orthodontic forces by demonstrating different patterns of osseous remodeling. With an understanding of the nature of the individual’s biologic risk factors (e.g., gingiva, alveolar bone, breathing pattern, degree of malocclusion), appropriate periodontal, orthodontic, and surgical preventative procedures and precautionary measures may be instituted to provide a more favorable tissue environment to minimize alveolar bone loss and gingival recession. Historically, Ochsenbein and Maynard discussed the importance of thick versus thin gingiva with regard to restorative treatment planning.150 In addition, in a group of patients reviewed by Olsson and colleagues, a thick periodontal biotype (85% of population) was found to be more prevalent than a thin periodontal biotype (15% of population).152 Thick gingival tissue is dense in appearance, with a fairly large zone (length) of attachment. The gingival topography is relatively flat, which is suggestive of a full underlying bony architecture. Thin gingival tissue tends to be delicate and almost translucent in appearance. The tissue is friable, with a minimal zone of attachment; this is suggestive of minimal bone over the labial roots of the teeth. The diametrically opposite thin and thick gingival biotypes will respond differently when subjected to inflammation, mechanical trauma, orthodontic forces, or surgical insults. Results from at least some clinical studies indicate that, as long as a tooth is being orthodontically moved with light forces and within or into (and not out of) the alveolar process, then the risk of harmful side effects on the marginal (gingival) soft tissues is minimal.212215 In current clinical practice, pretreatment gingival augmentation (i.e., free gingival grafts, lateral pedicled flaps, and autogenous and allogenic connective tissue grafts) to improve the presenting thin keratinized gingiva—in combination with light orthodontic force—generally achieves objectives and limits recession and alveolar bone loss.

Effects of Inadequate Alveolar Bone (Alveolar Bone/Dental Root Ratio)

There will be inherent biologic variations among individuals with regard to the extent of alveolar housing as compared with the cumulative dental root volume of the compliment of teeth within each arch; this is known as the alveolar bone/dental root ratio.184,199 When the roots are crowded into limited available alveolar housing, the periodontal tissues are less able to withstand the routine inflammatory processes and the mechanical demands that they experience. In turn, the periodontium may recede (i.e., experience bone loss and gingival recession). To prevent this, either the space within the arch must be increased (e.g., rapid palatal expansion, surgically assisted rapid palatal expansion, segmental osteotomies) or extractions must be carried out as part of orthodontic treatment to limit the risk of periodontal deterioration.50,58,101,103,114,119,147,168,217 Orthodontic relief of dental crowding in the upper jaw by simply expanding the crown arch form in the presence of an inadequate alveolar arch form may align the dental crowns, but it will predictably result in cortical plate thinning, with the potential for dehiscence, fenestrations, loss of alveolar ridge height, and gingival recession (Fig. 6-8). Under these circumstances, successful dental uncrowding without extractions requires the initial expansion of the maxillary (skeletal) arch (e.g., rapid palatal expansion, surgically assisted rapid palatal expansion, segmental osteotomy).108 By following these principles, the achievement of improved arch form with the preservation of periodontal health should be possible.147

Effects of Nasal Obstruction and Mouth Breathing With Resulting Vertical Maxillary Excess, Lip Incompetence, and Inadequate Incisor/Gingiva Coverage

There is considerable variation among humans with respect to biologic respiratory patterns (i.e., mouth breathing versus nasal breathing). In the presence of significant nasal obstruction, a forced mouth-breathing pattern will occur and have the potential to cause detrimental effects on the periodontium.7,102,113,206 The existence of these two very different airway biotypes (i.e., nasal breathing and mouth breathing) and the secondary effects that may result should be recognized. Mouth breathing is an important etiologic factor for chronic gingivitis and chronic marginal periodontitis as well as for the formation of dental plaque and calculus. The presence of marginal gingivitis in individuals with mouth breathing was described in the literature by Coleyer in 1920. Warwick and Hastings (1933) also claimed that the surfaces of teeth and gingiva that were constantly exposed to air (i.e., in individuals who breathe habitually through the mouth) did not have the benefit of normal irrigation with saliva; these surfaces also did not benefit from the normal friction effects that result from the vestibular mucosa moving against the teeth and gingiva that would normally occur during lip closure.

In a normal human physiologic state, nasal breathing is a primary source of air intake; it is essential for the supply of properly cleansed, moist, warm air to the lungs. The mouth is considered the secondary emergency source of air for breathing. Individuals who primarily breathe through the mouth also tend to have an excessively open lip posture (i.e., >4 mm), and they often have reduced lip coverage of the incisors and the gingiva. Epidemiologic studies suggest an increased susceptibility to gingival inflammation among mouth breathers. The exact mechanism of these effects is not entirely known, but it is thought that the gingiva of the anterior teeth in particular is prone to drying out as a result of a lack of saliva. This scenario will also lead to an absence of the natural protective action of the saliva and the lips.

Gulati and colleagues undertook a study to assess the effects of mouth breathing, lip seal, and upper lip coverage on the gingival health of children.98 School-aged children between the ages of 10 and 14 years (n = 240) were selected for the study. After clinical examination, they were divided into two major groups: mouth breathers and normal breathers. These two groups were further subdivided into six subgroups on the basis of lip-seal ability and upper incisor lip coverage. The results of the study indicate a gingival index that is higher in mouth breathers with lip incompetence than in normal breathers. Increased lip separation and decreased upper lip coverage (i.e., excess exposure of the maxillary incisors) were also associated with higher plaque and gingival indices.

Alexander completed clinical research with the intent of understanding habitual mouth breathing and its effect on gingival health.79 The study included 200 patients with a mean age of 30 years who were attending a clinic for routine dental treatment. Each of the subjects underwent systematic examinations to evaluate the presence of gingival inflammation, supragingival and subgingival calculus, and bacterial plaque. Each detailed examination was carried out under standardized conditions. Individuals were questioned carefully regarding the manner in which they usually breathe (i.e., mouth breathing versus nasal breathing). Mean gingival inflammation scores, calculus surface indices, and bacterial indices (with erythrosine disclosing solution) were calculated for each of their individual teeth. The study results confirm that habitual mouth breathing is highly associated with an increase in gingival inflammation and the prevalence of supragingival and subgingival calculus (see Figs. 6-15 through 6-22).

Fukuda and colleagues completed a study to evaluate the influence of mouth breathing on the periodontal tissues.76 Ten patients with chronic marginal periodontitis who were found to be habitual mouth breathers were included in the study, and they were evaluated for 30 days. During the experimental time frame, the study patients underwent taping of the lips to accomplish lip seal and to limit the mouth breathing option while sleeping. Oral examinations were completed and biopsy specimens of the gingiva were taken before and after nighttime lip tapings. The study indicates that, with satisfactory lip seal (i.e., lip taping), forced primary nasal breathing was achieved in these individuals while they were sleeping. This resulted in the following:

Effects of Malocclusion on Periodontal Health

Bollen completed a systematic review of the literature to answer the question, “Does a malocclusion affect periodontal health?”35 An electronic search included all publications from 1960 through 2006. A total of 25 studies that evaluated the association between a malocclusion and periodontal health were of sufficient quality for inclusion in the review.* Only 5 of these 25 studies adjusted for factors such as age, socioeconomic status, and oral hygiene. The total number of subjects included in the 25 studies was 35,300, and they had a mean age of 22 years (range, 3 to 60 years). Pertinent results of the review included the following:

The conclusions drawn by Bollen suggest that there is often a correlation between the presence of malocclusion and periodontal disease. However, the extent of this correlation, which is found in large population studies, should not be interpreted as demonstrating a clear cause and effect for any given individual.4,5

Potential Detrimental Effects of Orthodontic “Camouflage” Maneuvers on the Periodontium

Orthodontic camouflage maneuvers and dental restorative procedures carried out in an attempt to neutralize the malocclusion may be additive to the individual’s biologic risk factors with regard to his or her potential for progressive deterioration of the periodontium (see Figs. 6-16 through 6-25).

Long Face Growth Pattern

In the individual with a long face growth pattern, orthodontic camouflage maneuvers may attempt to correct maxillary arch–width deficiency via the buccal tipping of the posterior teeth (see Figs. 6-15 through Fig 6-19). If more than a few millimeters are required, this may result in the remodeling of the alveolar process with dehiscence and fenestration of the buccal cortex, followed by gingival recession.27,205,207,209

Orthodontic mechanics that are carried out in an attempt to manage the skeletal component of an anterior open bite often “extrude” the incisors. A biologic consequence may be the remodeling of the alveolar process with dehiscence and fenestration of the mandibular labial cortex, followed by gingival recession. Maxillary incisor root resorption may also occur.

Maxillary Deficiency With Relative Mandibular Excess Growth Pattern

With a maxillary deficient and relative mandibular excess growth pattern, orthodontic camouflage maneuvers often attempt to correct upper arch–width deficiency via the buccal tipping of the posterior teeth (see Figs. 6-14 and 6-20 through 6-23). If more than a few millimeters are required, this may result in the remodeling of the alveolar process with dehiscence and fenestration of the buccal cortex, followed by gingival recession.27,205,207,209

Orthodontic mechanics that are carried out to manage the skeletal component of the negative overjet often result in the proclination of the maxillary incisors and retroclined mandibular anterior teeth. This approach may result in the remodeling of the alveolar process with dehiscence and fenestration of the mandibular labial cortex, followed by gingival recession. The remodeling of the alveolar process with a loss of maxillary labial cortex may also be seen.185,194,210

Primary Mandibular Deficiency Growth Pattern

In the individual who presents with a primary mandibular deficiency growth pattern, orthodontic camouflage maneuvers often attempt to uncrowd the mandibular arch by “flaring” the anterior dentition and to then decrease the overjet by proclining the incisors even further (see Figs. 6-24 through Fig. 6-28). This may result in the remodeling of the alveolar process with dehiscence and fenestrations of the labial cortex, followed by gingival recession.1015,18,26,64,65,72,178,195,211

Another common error occurs when mandibular advancement surgery is planned to correct the excess overjet. Often an inter–arch-width discrepancy will be unmasked (i.e., in approximately 30% of cases). It is not uncommon for clinicians to then avoid maxillary surgery through the process of orthodontic buccal tipping the maxillary posterior teeth to relieve the crossbites. If more than a few millimeters are required, this may result in remodeling of the alveolar process with dehiscence and fenestration of the buccal cortex followed by gingival recession180 (see Figs. 6-24 through 6-28).

Establishing a Healthy Periodontium and Periodontal Therapeutics

Before the initiation of orthodontic treatment, the clinician should assess for adequate attached gingiva (i.e., the need for grafting); adequate alveolar bone (i.e., the need for extractions or alveolar expansion); caries and plaque control (i.e., the need for hygiene instruction, deep scaling, and root planing); the adequacy of dental restorations (i.e., the need for restorative dentistry); the adequacy of nasal breathing (i.e., the need to open the airway through intranasal surgery); and the adequacy of lip closure (i.e., the need for jaw surgery).16,17 When a jaw discrepancy is present (with or without combined nasal obstruction and lip incompetence), the orthodontic objectives should be modified to include the coordination of surgical treatment to achieve the desired end results.

A primary focus of periodontal therapeutics is to reduce inflammation by creating an environment that can be maintained as free of plaque as possible.2,3,22,87,136,159,164,166 After this is accomplished, the individual can be trained to perform the task of deplaquing the dentition and developing an effective habit of doing so at least once every 24 hours.179,186 Plaque-retaining traps will limit the individual’s ability to effectively deplaque the dentition.91 These traps include calculus, crowded teeth, malaligned teeth, restorative overhangs, overcontoured teeth, root anomalies, subgingival caries, and pocketing.97 Consultation with a periodontist is useful, because his or her skills include the ability to diagnose and remove plaque traps and also to effectively educate the affected individual with regard to how best to maintain clean teeth.130 Limiting plaque traps may also require orthodontic procedures to reposition dental crowns into more healthy relationships and to place roots more fully within the alveolar bone. This may be combined with procedures to surgically align the jaws (e.g., orthognathic correction) and to open the nasal airway (e.g., septoplasty, inferior turbinate reduction).48,51,71,74,75,78,88,90,94,140,158,162,167,168 Misguided orthodontic tooth movement carried out in isolation or in combination with surgery can result in injuries that includes the loss of alveolar crestal height, the dehiscence of or fenestrations through the labial and lingual plates, gingival recession, root resorption, tooth mobility, and inadequate occlusion (see Figs. 6-29 and 6-30).42,60,61,127,128,146,148,153

Adult Orthodontic Treatment

Throughout the more advanced countries in the world, there has been a continuous increase in the number of adults who are seeking orthodontic treatment. There is a growing desire to maintain the dentition throughout life and an awareness of the importance of a comprehensive dental rehabilitative approach to do so. The orthodontic movement of teeth and the level of orthodontic force applied have potential effects on the surrounding alveolar bone, the PDLs, and the gingival attachments.

With aging, there tends to be progressive reduction of the periodontium, an increase in the root–tooth ratio, and a decrease in the resistance to spontaneous tooth migration. For these reasons, a reduced baseline periodontium may be present more frequently in adults than in adolescents. These periodontal findings must be taken into consideration before the initiation of an orthodontic program. With age, there may also be an increase in bone porosity (i.e., decreased density). The initial reaction of the PDL and the alveolar bone to orthodontic loading in the adult may be delayed. However, after tooth displacement gets under way, treatment can be carried out in the same way in the adult as it is in a teenager or a young adult. There is no known age limit to the orthodontic movement of teeth (see Fig. 6-28). By contrast, it is known that the precondition of the periodontium should be one of health and anatomic adequacy to mitigate the risks to the periodontium during orthodontic therapy. The presenting periodontium—whether normal or diminished—should be healthy when tooth movement is initiated.

Conclusions

The periodontium includes the investing and supporting tissues of the teeth, and it consists of the attachment apparatus and the dentogingival unit. The degeneration of the periodontium is likely to accelerate in the presence of specific intrinsic biologic factors (i.e., the individual’s biotype), which may include a baseline jaw discrepancy with malocclusion; the crowding of the dental roots within limited alveolar bone; a forced mouth-breathing pattern; and an inadequate amount of attached gingiva at the clinical crown interface of the teeth. Active infection or inflammation of the periodontium, non-biologic restorations at the dental–gingival interface, para-occlusal habits, local toxins, and poor oral hygiene also negatively affect the periodontium.

Before the initiation of orthodontic treatment, the clinician should assess for the patient’s specific risk factors for periodontal disease and address them. When a jaw discrepancy is present, the orthodontic objectives should be modified to include the coordination of surgical treatment to best preserve the periodontium and to achieve the desired end result.

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