Disc Replacement Technologies in the Cervical and Lumbar Spine

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Chapter 154 Disc Replacement Technologies in the Cervical and Lumbar Spine

Ronan M. Dardis, Amar Saxena, Amjad Shad, Bhupal Chitnavis, Richard Gullan

Background Considerations

Although great progress has occurred on the biomechanical aspects and significant progress on the clinical aspects of spinal arthroplasty, it should still be considered a work in progress. Surgeons should not forget that there are very acceptable alternatives to arthroplasty within the surgical armamentarium and should feel no compulsion to undertake the latest techniques.

The intervertebral disc is composed of a central nucleus pulposus (containing predominantly Type 1 collagen fibrils) and a peripheral annulus fibrosis (which can consist of up to 25 lamellae of mostly Type 1 collagen) that provides support, allows some movement, resists excessive movement, and, according to some absorbs shock.¹ The ability to resist axial stresses is considerable but decreases with age.² With normal loading, the normal nucleus pulposus is transposed by vertebral body pressure to tighten the annulus and produce ligamentous intervertebral stability. With heavy loading, the rigid, spherical normal nucleus pulposus gains stable seating in the nuclear recesses, where it acts as a piston to depress the cribriform plates, bend the trabeculae, and produce the necessary stability. With return of normal loading, the vertebral body rebounds, the nucleus pulposus resumes its normal locus, and the annulus tightens. Therefore it has been recognized that the vertebral bodies are very significant contributors to the shock-absorption function of the spinal column.³

It is fairly well accepted that the degenerative changes that result from aging of the vertebral body, the annulus fibrosis, and the nucleus pulposus are likely to begin with infarction of the cribriform cartilage endplates and subsequent nutritional failure of the nucleus pulposus.⁴ Calcification of the endplates occurs in adulthood, and the nutrient uptake and waste elimination within the disc then becomes dependent on diffusion. This leads to anaerobic metabolism’s taking a more prominent role, leading to lactate production and an acidic environment. The proteinases become more active, resulting in further disc degeneration.⁵ Indeed, it has been shown that when heavy loads are applied to the intervertebral disc, the normal disc biology can be disrupted, leading to an increase in catabolic enzymes and an acceleration of intervertebral disc degeneration.⁶ Studies have noted increased rates of degenerative disc disease in siblings of affected persons and strong correlation in twins.

The pathophysiology of the degenerative disease process has been described by Kirkaldy-Willis.⁷ The progressive disease is divided into three stages based on the amount of damage or degeneration to the disc and facet joints at a given point in time. However, the cascade of individual motion segment degeneration is best thought of as a continuous process rather than as three clearly definable and separate stages.

Stage 1: Dysfunction

The first stage is described as the dysfunctional stage. It develops as the initial changes of intervertebral disc degeneration begin. This can occur between 20 and 30 years of age. There is circumferential fissuring or tearing of the outer annulus fibrosis. This can result from repetitive vertebral endplate injury, which leads to a disruption of the intervertebral vascular supply and therefore impairment of the normal disc metabolism. It is thought that these pathophysiologic changes might result from years of repetitive microtrauma and can manifest as acute mechanical back pain episodes. These clinical episodes tend to be self-limiting and improve with minimal intervention. Occasionally, the pain is debilitating because of the large innervations to the outer third of the annulus fibrosis via the sinuvertebral nerves.

With the passage of time, the circumferential annular tears can coalesce, forming larger radial tears, while the nucleus pulposus shrinks owing to the loss of its water-retaining properties resulting from a decrease in the amount and organization of its proteoglycans. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies at this stage can reveal a high-intensity zone (HIZ) in the posterior outer annular fibrosis and decreased signal intensity on T2-weighted images, suggesting disc desiccation with or without disc bulging but without disc herniation.

Stage 2: Instability

The second stage is described as the instability stage. It represents more significant tissue damage and tends to occur later in life, typically between 30 and 50 years of age. Multiple annular tears and delamination of the annulus fibrosis accelerates the intervertebral disc degeneration to a point where vertebral segment instability occurs. This results in a further decline in the nuclear proteoglycan composition, with a further resulting deterioration in the water content. Collapse of the nucleus pulposus leads to increased force transfer to the annulus fibrosis. The clinical episodes now tend to be periods of back pain that are usually more intense, often last longer, and tend to require more aggressive intervention. The MRI reveals loss of intervertebral disc height, a darker disc on T2-weighted imaging, and sometimes a disc herniation.

Stage 3: Stabilization

The third stage is described as the stabilization stage. It is exemplified by end-stage tissue damage and attempts at repair. Further nucleus pulposus resorption occurs with increasing intervertebral disc space narrowing fibrosis, endplate irregularities, and the formation of osteophytes. The stage typically occurs later and in the lumbar spine can manifest with symptoms of neurogenic claudication or radiculopathy from any combination of central, lateral recess, or foraminal stenosis. At this stage the lower limb symptoms can prevail over low back pain.

However, MRI is positive in asymptomatic patients at least 40% of the time.⁸^–¹⁴ About 30% of adults without low back pain have evidence of protruded disc on MRI; more than half have bulging or degenerative discs and a fifth have annular fissures.¹⁵ Therefore, the relationship among disc degeneration, the MRI appearance, and spine-related pain remains controversial, and the decision to undertake surgical management of a degenerative spinal condition is a large one and is very much patient specific. The presurgical workup must include a thorough history relating to any spinal complaints including neurologic compromise, a diligent physical examination that leads to a working diagnosis, and the appropriate subsequent confirmatory radiologic imaging. Although simple radiography is an inexpensive and readily accessible starting point, its utility is severely limited by its inability to visualize neural structures directly or indirectly, and therefore the presence or absence of neural compression is indeterminable.^16,¹⁷ Nonetheless, all our potential arthroplasty patients undergo plain flexion-extension radiographs of the appropriate spinal segment to look for instability of the potential operative or another segment and to confirm that there is still movement of the proposed operative segment. Also, if there is going to be any delay in obtaining true confirmatory imaging, routine spinal radiography should be undertaken to exclude other disease processes, such as malignancy, infection, or arthritis. Interestingly, when Friedenberg and Miller compared 92 asymptomatic patients with those complaining of neck and arm pain, no difference was found between the two groups in radiographic findings, with the exception of a greater incidence of disc degeneration at C5–6 and at C6–7 in the symptomatic group.¹⁸

All patients undergo MRI of the appropriate spinal area unless a contraindication exists. Virtually all patients now undergo supplementary computed tomography (CT) scanning, which allows excellent visualization of bony osteophytes and the foraminal architecture including the facet joints, especially with the reconstructed (3D) CT imaging. CT scanning in flexion and extension can allow an enhanced appreciation of subtle instability or spinal canal or foraminal encroachment (especially by the ligamentum flavum if CT myelography is undertaken). The CT imaging also allows the surgeon to assess the disc size before surgery.

Electromyography (EMG) and nerve conduction studies can be useful in diagnostic evaluation, providing additional objective evidence of root compression in patients with relatively minor neurologic findings. Moreover, they are useful in differentiating root, plexus, peripheral nerve, and muscle disorders that might mimic cervical or lumbar radiculopathy. They can also help to uncover a second problem that coexists with the radiculopathy, such as carpal tunnel syndrome, ulnar neuropathy, or compression of the lateral cutaneous nerve of the thigh causing meralgia paresthetica.

We also occasionally request the radiologists to undertake a provocative discogram, which should include a normal control level above or below the degenerative disc in question.

None of our groups have been provided with the resources to undertake psychological profiling of prospective patients.¹⁹ Nonetheless, we try to avoid operating on patients with outstanding litigation claims.

Interbody Stabilization and Fusion Procedures

Interbody stabilization procedures using the standard fusion techniques including techniques reported by our groups ²⁰^–²⁵ and others account for the majority of our interbody operations.

General Considerations

The elimination of motion at the functional spinal unit (two vertebral bodies, the intervertebral disc, and associated facet joints) has been the mainstay of treatment since the 1960s.²⁶ Anterior cervical discectomy and fusion is the standard of care for relief of pain and stabilization associated with radiculopathy and myelopathy,²⁷ with excellent long-term results. However, lest we forget, very satisfactory results have been reported with the placement of nothing at all in the disc space after anterior cervical discectomy.^28,²⁹ It was the significant concerns raised by Hillibrand^30,³¹ and others who noted, in various series of patients who had undergone anterior cervical arthrodesis, that between 25% and 89% who were followed for a lengthy period developed new degenerative changes at adjacent levels.

The debate is complex because much of the biomechanical and clinical evidence about the cause of adjacent segment disease is anecdotal and inconsistent.³² Although intradiscal pressure and motion alterations have been found at the adjacent levels following a single-level anterior lumbar interbody fusion (ALIF) in a calf model,³³ it is recognized that longer fusions, both in the lumbar spine and in the cervical spine, have not been associated with higher rates of adjacent segment disease.^32,³⁴

Indeed, the recent enthusiasm for the application of cervical plates to aid fusion might actually be related to the increase in adjacent segment degeneration. Anterior plate impingement upon an adjacent disc is likely to accelerate adjacent level changes.³⁵ An association between adjacent level ossification and the plate-to-disc distance has been established in a retrospective review of 118 patients undergoing anterior cervical discectomy and fusion.³⁴ We should not forget that a patient who has already developed cervical spondylosis at the most common level (C5–6) to such a degree that surgery is warranted may be predisposed to develop degeneration at an adjacent level (C6–7 or C4–5) because of the natural history of the spondylosis and independent of whether or not a fusion is performed at the original level.

Moreover, despite the frequent reference to Hillibrand’s paper ³⁰ by those promoting arthroplasty, the authors later indicated that the paper suggested that the development of adjacent segment disease may be related to the natural history of cervical spondylosis.³¹ Similar findings have been documented in the lumbar spine by Ghiselli and colleagues,³³ who found no correlation between the length of fusion and the rate of reoperation in 215 patients following posterior lumbar fusion. They noted that segments that were adjacent to a single-level fusion had a three times higher risk for developing disease than did those adjacent to a multiple-level fusion.

Contraindications to cervical disc replacement include ankylosing spondylitis, rheumatoid arthritis, a history or cervical infection, ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament, and diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis. We avoid an arthroplasty in the presence of severe spondylosis at the proposed level (significant or bridging osteophytes, disc height loss of greater than 70%, absence of motion). Similarly, radiologic suggestion of cervical instability including translation of more than 3 mm or more than 11 degrees of rotational difference to that of either adjacent level is a contraindication. We would be very reluctant to undertake an arthroplasty in a morbidly obese patient (body mass index [BMI] >40) or in insulin-dependent diabetic patients (for fear of infection). At present we will not consider an arthroplasty for treatment of isolated axial neck pain. Clearly, allergy to any of the components of the implant is a definite contraindication.

Operative Procedure

ProDisc-C Artificial Cervical Disc Placement

The procedure is undertaken under general anesthesia with the patient supine and the cervical spine in the neutral or very minimally extended position. Hyperextension of the neck is avoided, not least because it then requires greater force to retract the pharynx and larynx to expose the anterior cervical spine. We simply place a 1-liter saline bag between the shoulders and the head in a head ring. The head should also be strapped to keep the head and neck stable during various steps of inserting the ProDisc-C implant (Synthes, West Chester, PA).

The endotracheal tube is carefully secured and passes superiorly over the head out of the way of the surgeon and assistant. Routinely, a collar incision is used, preferably placed in a skin crease or along a Langer line. It is technically easier for a right-handed surgeon using the high-speed air drill under the microscope to operate from the right side. The risk of injury to the recurrent laryngeal might be higher on the right, but the risk to the thoracic duct is diminished. The position of the incision is important. We usually perform lateral screening with a metallic marker before marking and draping. Usually an incision at the upper level of the cricoid cartilage exposes C5–6, and an incision just below the level of the cricoid suffices for C6–7 exposure.

The skin incision is taken to the platysma, which we sometimes split rather than cut in the line of the incision. Undercutting the subcutaneous tissues facilitates this approach, which is rewarded with an excellent postoperative cosmetic result. The investing cervical fascia is divided along the anterior border of the sternomastoid muscle to define the plane between the carotid sheath laterally and the larynx, trachea, and esophagus medially. The superior belly of the omohyoid muscle is identified passing from the hyoid bone inferolaterally. Generally it is possible to divide the fascia around this and gently retract it up or down, but occasionally it is necessary to divide it usually at its midtendinous segment. During the preliminary dissection it is essential to feel the pulsation of the carotid sheath laterally and to continue dissection in a posteromedial direction toward the spine.

The anterior cervical spine is initially palpated after gentle retraction of the esophagus and trachea using a Langenbeck retractor. Occasionally a prominent osteophyte at the disc level aids in identifying the level. The prevertebral fascia is divided in the midline. Although this plane of dissection is usually bloodless, small draining veins might require bipolar diathermy and division. It is rare for the superior thyroid artery to cross the path of surgery. It can be wise to ligature the artery formally if it is to be divided. We make no effort to identify the recurrent laryngeal nerve. We have found that it readily mobilizes along with the trachea and esophagus from the midline to the opposite side.

The prevertebral fascia is reflected laterally below the longus colli muscle. Careful incision of the medial aspect of the muscle with cutting diathermy (appropriately sheathed, thereby only exposing the very tip) on a low setting is helpful in elevating the longus colli muscle. At this stage, the disc level is formally identified with a cross-table lateral fluoroscopic image using an image intensifier. The marking needle is bent so that it can only be placed in the anterior portion of the disc. The needle is withdrawn and a small piece of the center of the disc is cut out. This action ensures no later mistakes in recognizing the correct level.

Our groups have used four different arthroplasty devices. We describe the ProDisc-C simply as an illustrative example.

For the insertion of the ProDisc-C implant, once the correct level has been identified, the midline is marked before dissecting off the longus colli muscles. The presence of longus colli muscles on either side is an excellent reference point for marking the midline, which is essential for correct placement of the ProDisc-C prosthesis (one keel). It is recommended to identify the midline using an anteroposterior (AP) projection. Once the midline is marked, the longus colli muscles are dissected off the vertebrae using either low-current monopolar diathermy or high-current bipolar diathermy.

Special radiolucent retractors are applied under the longus colli muscles to prevent injury to the sympathetic chain, carotid arteries, and the midline structures.

For placement of the implant it is essential to have radiolucent retractors because the procedure require visualization of most steps on x-ray.

The ProDisc-C artificial cervical disc system comes with vertebral body retainer screws. The retainer screws are inserted under x-ray guidance (lateral projection) in the upper one third of the superior vertebra and inferior one third of the inferior vertebra parallel to the respective end plates (Fig. 154-1). The screws are bicortical. The length of the screws can be calculated on the picture archiving and communication system (PACS) using a CT scan image. The retainer handle is mounted onto the screws. It is important to leave enough space between the retainer pins to allow for the height of the keel on the ProDisc-C prosthesis. It is important not to use the retainer pins to distract the disc space. Their purpose is to stabilize the segment while the various steps of preparing the bed for the implant, keel cutting, and insertion of the implant are carried out.

FIGURE 154-1 Placement of vertebral body pins. The midline is marked (with a low-current monopolar diathermy) between the longus colli before dissecting the longus colli. It is recommended to confirm the midline by an anteroposterior x-ray. Radiolucent retractors are applied and retainer screws are inserted under x-ray control.

(Courtesy of Mr. A. Saxena.)

Once the retainer pins are in place, discectomy is carried out under microscope. Anterior osteophytes overlying the disc space are removed using a rongeur or the high-speed drill to flatten the surface.

The primary objective of the operation is the decompression of the spinal canal and/or foramina. The annulus is incised and removed with a pituitary rongeur or curette. The disc can be removed with curettes or a high speed drill (Fig. 154-2). Good lateral exposure is necessary for the implant, and the dissection is continued laterally until the upslope of the uncovertebral joints on either side is identified. Further lateral dissection or drilling can damage the vertebral arteries. The uncovertebral joints must not be drilled to keep the segment stable after the insertion of the ProDisc-C implant.

FIGURE 154-2 The posterior longitudinal ligament is excised and posterior osteophytes are removed.

(Courtesy of Mr. A. Saxena.)

The operating microscope is introduced once most of the disc space has been cleared. The high-speed drill is used to remove the remaining cartilaginous end-plate and annulus. Discs with plenty of bony spondylosis are not ideal candidates for replacement, and fusion is a preferred option. Posterior osteophytes are drilled using spherical burs of appropriate size. Downward pressure is never applied to the drill head; instead, the drill is stroked in an axial plane parallel to the endplate. Posterior osteophytes can be thinned out by the drill and then gently cracked off with a small curette or 1-mm Kerrison upcutting rongeur. The use of bone wax for vertebral bleeding should be kept to an absolute minimum because it will hinder osteointegration of the implant prosthesis.

During the entire procedure the risk to three important structures—the spinal cord and the right and left vertebral arteries—must be considered. In severely spondylotic spines it is possible to be skewed to one side early in the procedure. It is always imperative to remain aware of the midline. Once the posterior osteophytes are removed, the annulus is nibbled with a 1-mm or 2-mm shallow-footplate Kerrison punch. This step can be tedious when the tissues are grossly thickened and degenerate. The posterior longitudinal ligament is teased open with a blunt hook and a sickle-shaped knife (Karlin knife). It is then removed with a small upcutting punch. Because an arthroplasty is to be performed, it is imperative to formally remove all the posterior osteophytes. Indeed, excessive osteophytes may be a contraindication to an arthroplasty. Exposure of the dura is the confirmation of adequate decompression. Careful exploration with a small blunt probe alongside the root foramen allows confirmation that the root is free.

The endplates are then prepared. To achieve the requisite bone-prosthetic contact, it is important to make the endplates as flat as possible within the footprint of the implant, while maintaining the integrity and strength of the bony vertebral endplates. Care must be taken not to compromise the endplate’s strength by removing too much cortical bone. Trial sizes of the arthroplasty implant are selected.

The goal is to select the largest footprint possible and the smallest height necessary. The implant should cover the majority of the vertebral body endplate. The undersized implant leads to increased risk of implant subsidence.

Connect the trial handle to the trial implant. Ensure that the stop is fully screwed, closest to the footprint. Align the trail implant on the midline and advance the trial implant under image intensifier into the disc space.

The optimal position of the trial implant is at the posterior margin of the vertebral bodies, centered on the midline. If the stop does not allow the trial implant to enter deep enough, the implant can be positioned deeper by turning the adjustable stop anticlockwise (1 revolution = 0.5 mm).

Release the distraction to determine the optimal height of the trial implant. The height should be the smallest appropriate height to match normal adjacent discs.

Ensure that the trial stop is fully seated against the vertebral bodies, apply mild compression with vertebral body retainer, and remove the handle from the trial implant. Check the position of the implant in lateral view.

A double shadow on the lateral view means that the trial implant is not positioned straight in the sagittal plane.

Disc trials are supplied in sizes corresponding to each prosthetic footprint and height. Six different footprints are available for optimal coverage of the vertebral end plate. M is 15 mm wide and 12 mm deep, MD is 15 mm wide and 14 mm deep, L is 17 mm wide and 14 mm deep, LD is 17 mm wide and 16 mm deep, XL is 19 mm wide and 16 mm deep, and XLD is 19 mm wide and 18 mm deep.

Using fluoroscopy, surface apposition at the bone-implant interface of the trial can be verified and the implant height can be compared with adjacent discs to reduce the risk of overdistraction. The artificial disc inserter, which holds the implant, is used to correctly place the disc exactly in the midline (as indicated by the vertebral distractor pins). Fluoroscopy monitors the depth within the disc space.

Selecting an implant that is too tall can limit segmental range of motion. Our clinical experience that in approximately 80% of all cases the correct trial implant has a height of 5 mm.

Milling for Keel Cut Preparation

Choose the milling guide according to the height of the trial implant (Fig. 154-3). Slide the milling guide over the shaft of the trial implant and tighten the locking nut. Verify that the milling guide is centered on the midline. To ensure construct stability, place the sharp orientation pin through the superior hole in the milling guide and manually drive it into the bone under fluoroscopy control (Fig. 154-4).

FIGURE 154-3 The trial implant is inserted under x-ray control. The milling system is loaded onto the trial implant.

(A and B courtesy of Mr. A. Saxena.)

FIGURE 154-4 To ensure stability of the construct, place the sharp orientation pin through the superior hole in the milling guide and manually drive it into the bone (under x-ray control). An x-ray revealing retainer pins, trial implant, and the sharp orientation pin in the upper vertebral body to hold the trial implant in place while milling is taken in the lower vertebral body.

(Courtesy of Mr. A. Saxena.)

Attach the milling bit with quick coupling to a high-speed power tool. Under image intensifier control, insert the milling bit into the inferior hole of the milling guide and touch the anterior cortex. Under full power, plunge the milling bit into the vertebral body until it reaches the positive stop in the milling guide. Keeping the drill at full power, sweep the milling bit toward the trial implant until it reaches the inner limit of the milling guide, then away from the trial implant to the full outer limit. This is done under fluoroscopy control.

Remove the milling bit and insert the blunt orientation pin into the inferior hole of the milling guide. Remove the sharp pin and repeat the milling procedure in the superior vertebral body. Ensure that the superior keel cut has the same distance to the posterior border of the vertebra as the inferior keel cut. If the superior keel cut has to be deepened, a special longer milling bit can be used.

Remove the milling guide. Reopen the vertebral body retainer slightly before removing the trial implant.

It is important to ensure that the milling bits are never used free hand or unguided. Synthes recommends using the Synthes Electric Pen Drive with 60,000 or 90,000 rpm.

The sharp tip of the keel cleaner is used to remove any bone material in the superior and inferior keel cuts. Irrigate and aspirate the wound to make sure that the disc space is kept clear of any debris.

Inserting the Implant

It is helpful to have a scrub nurse familiar with procedure of loading the implant onto the inserter. The spacer must be fully inserted into the cylindrical part of the inserter.

Align the keels of the ProDisc-C with the keel cuts. Ensure that the inferior plate with the inlay is caudal. Under lateral image intensifier fluoroscopic control, advance the ProDisc-C implant to the posterior margin of the vertebral bodies (Fig. 154-5). Release the implant inserter from the implant by opening the scissors and remove it by pulling it straight back out of the operative field. The surgeon ensures that the implant sits properly in the disc space. Step by step, remove the securing nuts, the vertebral body retainer, and the retainer screws.

FIGURE 154-5 The implant is gently hammered into the disc space under x-ray control.

(Courtesy of Mr. A. Saxena.)

Once the artificial disc implant is disengaged from the disc inserter, the vertebral body distraction is released and the final position of the implant is checked visually and with fluoroscopy (Fig. 154-6). Appropriate sizing is critical to enhance motion, and overstuffing must be avoided.

FIGURE 154-6 Picture under microscope demonstrating the implant is in place.

(Courtesy of Mr. A. Saxena.)

If meticulous hemostasis is confirmed, closure proceeds. We usually place a small suction drain in the prevertebral space before closure. The platysma is closed with 2-0 polyglycolic acid suture (2-0 Vicryl), and a subcuticular suture of clear 3-0 Vicryl is inserted followed by Steri-Strips to skin. As well as the superior cosmetic result, the advantage of sutures over staples is that they can be removed rapidly if a life-threatening cervical hematoma develops.

Postoperative Care

Clearly, considering the purpose and nature of this operation, external immobilization is not required. All patients receive a 6-week course of a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) to decrease the possibility of heterotrophic calcification (unless NSAIDs are contraindicated). There are some concerns that the NSAID might reduce bony ingrowth onto the titanium-hydroxyapatite coating. All patients are monitored overnight to watch for the rare possibility of acute laryngeal swelling (especially at the C3–4 level of surgery) or a delayed hematoma causing respiratory embarrassment. If a drain is placed it is removed the following morning. A postoperative radiograph is obtained before the patient is discharged. After 6 weeks, flexion-extension lateral radiography is performed to ensure security of the implant and stability of the level.

Complications and Avoidance

The complication rate for anterior cervical disc surgery is, in experienced hands, low. Hoarseness is the most common reported complication and is usually the result of retractor pressure on the larynx. Dysphasia, laryngeal edema, or a sensation of a lump in the throat owing to swelling of the pharyngeal constrictor muscle can also be attributed to retractor blade placement. Careful selection of blade size and meticulous placement should reduce these self-resolving complaints.

Recurrent laryngeal nerve injury is another cause of postoperative hoarseness that may be permanent and cause some disability. Flynn reported its occurrence to be 1.4% of all cases.³⁶ Recurrent laryngeal injury composed 17% of all neurologic complications in his large review. He noted that it often resulted in litigation. We do not routinely dissect out the recurrent laryngeal nerve on the right side, and in several hundred cases we have not found laryngeal nerve palsy to be a particular problem. More serious neurologic deficit occurs approximately once in every 355 cases (0.3%). Flynn noted that despite the cause of new-onset postoperative myelopathy, reoperation can have little influence on the ultimate status of the neurologic deficit. Moreover, Flynn suggested that most of the surgeons whose patients experienced myelopathic complications were unable to determine the cause.

Major bleeding in anterior cervical disc surgery is rare. Any postoperative collection of blood can, however, lead to neurologic compromise or respiratory embarrassment. Drains are only partially useful and meticulous hemostasis is required. Injury to the carotid artery is rare but reported. The vertebral artery can be damaged if drilling is performed too far laterally. The resulting hemorrhage can prove difficult to stop. As a last resort, an endovascular technique using radiologic guidance stems the flow.

Esophageal or tracheal perforation occurs in less than 1% of cases. Careful placement of retractor blades minimizes the risk. If esophageal perforation is recognized intraoperatively, it should be repaired immediately and a general surgeon should be notified while the lesion is amenable to optimal surgical correction in the operating room. An intraoperatively passed nasogastric tube is required.

Certain complications are particularly associated with an arthroplasty as opposed to an arthrodesis (fusion). In particular, an inadequate decompression can cause ongoing symptoms due to a nerve root being irritated by the residual disc or osteophyte in the presence of a mobile segment. Suboptimal disc or osteophyte removal can be compensated by the immobilization that occurs with a fusion procedure. Indeed, it was initially believed that such immobilization assisted osteophyte resorption.

Ongoing cervical pain can be due to facet joint disease. Again, a successful fusion immobilizes the segment, thereby decreasing pain around symptomatic facet joints. Moreover, overdistraction of the facets with too large an implant or the precipitation of kyphosis by an undersized implant can also precipitate pain. We have not yet seen a device failure, but there is about a 1% risk of implant migration anteriorly. The design of the ProDisc-C (the keel falls short of the posterior surface of the vertebral body by 2 mm) prevents posterior migration. In two of our patients, the implant (ProDisc-C) had to be taken out within 6 weeks. The first one presented with dysphagia, and x-ray demonstrated anterior migration of the inferior part of the implant; the second was a woman who had a whiplash injury following a road traffic accident within 6 weeks, and subsequent x-rays demonstrated progressive anterior migration without any symptoms. One patient had an anterior disc replacement protrusion (precipitating dysphagia): She fell backward, striking her head, 9 months after implantation.

Lumbar Arthroplasty

In patients with severe discogenic low back pain, who have failed a protracted course of nonsurgical treatment and in whom surgical intervention is now being considered, a total lumbar disc arthroplasty may be a surgical option.

Certain criteria should be considered before offering such a procedure to the patient.

A detailed history should be obtained, including factors that improve or exacerbate low back pain, prior surgery, and the effects of spinal or sacroiliac injections (especially in patients with unilateral back pain). In most instances, discogenic low back pain manifests bilaterally. Therefore, patients with one-sided back pain should be carefully screened for symptomatic facet joint arthropathy, sacroiliac joint arthropathy, or inflammatory disease. Other sources of low back pain, including urologic, gynecologic, gastrointestinal, and vascular causes, should also be investigated and excluded. Patients who complain of mainly radicular pain are not ideal candidates for lumbar total disc replacement (TDR). It is our experience that patients who complain of an inability to stay in one position for short periods of time and who obtain relief by changing positions are often good candidates.

Patients should be observed walking, standing, and sitting. A complete neurologic examination should include tone, motor, sensory, and reflex examination. Patients should be evaluated for nerve tension signs (straight leg test) and myelopathy. In an erect position, patients should identify the location of their pain in both a neutral and a flexed position. Patients should also be examined in the extended position accompanied by lateral bending. Patients should be encouraged to achieve a body mass index of 30 or less.

The MRI characteristics as described by Kirkaldy-Wilis ⁷ should also be reviewed. CT scans should be used to exclude osteoarthritis of the facet (zygapophyseal) joints, Baastrup’s disease (kissing spines), and other sources of back pain. Fugiwara and colleagues have developed a grading system describing facet joint degeneration.³⁸ A preoperative CT scan is invaluable in obtaining measurements of the vertebral body size parameters in preparation for arthroplasty. Bertagnoli and Kumar have emphasized the importance of facet joint assessment.³⁹ We prefer to use diagnostic facet joint injections and discography in patients in whom other potential sources of pain exist. However, it is imperative to remember that discography is just one aid to diagnosis. It does not of itself define the need for surgical intervention or otherwise. The discographic findings should complement the history, examination, and other investigation findings. If osteoporosis is suspected, a DEXA (dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry) scan is usually requested.

Radiographically, patients with at least 50% remaining disc height obtain higher satisfaction rates compared to those with less than 50%, especially when discography is complementary. In our experience, patients with greater disc heights generally appear to experience greater and more consistent relief of their symptoms.

Definite contraindications and relative contraindications to lumbar arthroplasty exist. The presence of spondylolysis, spondylolisthesis, spinal fracture, posterior element disease such as a significant facet joint arthropathy or previous facet joint removal (from posterior surgery), central or lateral recess stenosis, herniated nucleus pulposus with a radiculopathy, a nonmobile segment, osteoporosis, or infection should be considered to be contraindications to an arthroplasty. Issues such as obesity and psychosocial conditions should be considered. Some commentators consider the prevalence of contraindications—either absolute or relative—to lumbar arthroplasty to be very high.⁴⁰ Again, satisfactory alternatives to arthroplasty exist, and in lumbar fusion procedures the risk of same-level disease is limited to patients who develop a pseudarthrosis. With an arthroplasty, however, there is a risk of causing new problems at the same level, particularly at the facet joints or ligamentum flavum. Despite the advanced biomechanical properties of the latest arthroplasty devices, they do not reproduce the movements of a normal healthy spinal motion segment with its constantly changing centre of rotation and complex coupled motions. These new abnormal forces can place new abnormal stresses on the facet joints and intervertebral ligaments, with resultant strains and pathologic degeneration.

Another interesting challenge to the implantation of a lumbar artificial disc replacement can be the variable contour morphology of the vertebral end plate, as described by the Yue-Bertagnoli classification (Fig. 154-7).

FIGURE 154-7 Yue-Bertagnoli (VEYBR) variable morphology of vertebral body endplates.

Flat end plates make implantation easier. End plates that exhibit a type II or type III morphology require, respectively, either a keel or a spike mode of endplate stabilization (Figs. 154-8 and 154-9). An implant that offers this type of anatomically adaptive solution enables the surgeon to provide artificial disc replacement surgery to patients who would otherwise have been excluded.

FIGURE 154-8 Active L spike version

FIGURE 154-9 Active L keel version

Estimating Size

It is important to assess the largest possible implant bed area using CT.

There is an increased risk of migration if the prosthesis plate selected is too small. The implant plate must completely cover the endplate of the vertebral body. It is recommended to select a prosthesis plate that provides maximum coverage of the vertebral body.

Selecting the correct inlay height to achieve height reconstruction while preserving adequate mobility in the joint should improve outcome results. However, overdistraction can result in loss of motion as well as impaction and fracture of the facet.

Exposing the Anterior Lumbar Spine

It is our preference and recommendation to avail oneself of the assistance of a vascular surgeon to obtain access to the lumbar spine. Patients with prior abdominal surgery should definitely be evaluated by an access surgeon.

Exposure of the anterior portion of the lumbar disc can be obtained through either a transperitoneal or retroperitoneal approach using various skin incisions.⁴¹^–⁴³ We tend to use a retroperitoneal approach, when possible, because it obviates the need for bowel retraction. Transperitoneal approaches can carry a considerably higher risk of complications, including postoperative ileus or injury to the presacral plexus.

We use a standard fluoroscopic operating table. The patient is always catheterized with a Foley catheter, and preoperative intravenous floxacillin and gentamicin are administered.

Before marking, lateral and AP fluoroscopic x-rays are obtained to identify the disc space relative to the potential skin incision (Fig. 154-10). We place the patient in a supine position with slightly flexed hips to relieve tension from the major blood vessels.

FIGURE 154-10 To mark the incision, a lateral radiograph is taken, with a metal rod parallel to the defective disc.

If the operating table permits, we often use the spread legs position, with the surgeon standing between the legs. This facilitates axially correct implantation of the prosthesis. Alternatively, the patient is positioned with both legs together. In this case the surgeon stands on the approach side of the patient.

A right side approach is recommended for the L5–S1 level and a left side approach for higher levels.

In female patients, especially if they are relatively thin, we employ a Pfannensteil incision, which can provide excellent visualization of either the L5–S1 or L4–5 intervertebral space.

The operating table should permit image intensifier images in two planes in the operating zone.

Discectomy and Preparing the Endplate

A discectomy is performed and the endplates are cleared of residual disc with a variety of different-sized curettes and rongeurs (Fig. 154-11). The soft disc components should be carefully removed to preserve the bony endplates. The cartilaginous endplate should be removed as completely as possible. Cartilaginous material can impede osteointegration of the Plasmapore μ-CaP coating of the implant to the endplates. However, too-extensive preparation and thinning of the bony endplates can increase the risk of implant subsidence and migration.

FIGURE 154-11 A discectomy is performed and the endplates are cleared of residual disc with a variety of different-sized curettes and rongeurs.

A central and lateral decompression is performed. Removal of the posterior longitudinal ligament may be necessary, especially when advanced mobilization of the segment is required or extruded disc fragments are to be removed. Endplate preparation (keel preparation, spike preparation) for prosthesis implantation is device specific and should be performed as necessary.

The mobilization of the interspace should be performed using interspace distractors and verified using trials and lateral fluoroscopy (Fig. 154-12). The angled distractor provides a better view into the operating site and facilitates the discectomy and preparation of endplates.

FIGURE 154-12 The mobilization of the interspace is performed using interspace distractors and is verified using trials and lateral fluoroscopy.

We verify the size of the trial implant in the disc compartment by fluoroscopy (Fig. 154-13). An oversized implant can lead to overdistraction, which can irritate the facets, nerve roots, or contents of the thecal sac. An undersized inlay can result in the implant’s sitting too loosely in the degenerated disc compartment, which can lead to instability or implant migration.