Chlamydia trachomatis

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Chapter 218 Chlamydia trachomatis

Chlamydia trachomatis is subdivided into 2 biovars: lymphogranuloma venereum (LGV) and trachoma, which is the agent of human oculogenital diseases other than LGV. Although the strains of both biovars have almost complete DNA homology, they differ in growth characteristics and virulence in tissue culture and animals. In developed countries, C. trachomatis is the most prevalent sexually transmitted disease, causing urethritis in men, cervicitis and salpingitis in women, and conjunctivitis and pneumonia in infants.

218.1 Trachoma

Trachoma is the most important preventable cause of blindness in the world. It is caused primarily by the A, B, Ba, and C serotypes of C. trachomatis. It is endemic in the Middle East and Southeast Asia and among Navajo Indians in the southwestern USA. In areas that are endemic for trachoma, such as Egypt, genital chlamydial infection is caused by the serotypes responsible for oculogenital disease: D, E, F, G, H, I, J, and K. The disease is spread from eye to eye. Flies are a common vector.

Trachoma begins as a follicular conjunctivitis, usually in early childhood. The follicles heal, leading to conjunctival scarring that can result in an entropion, with the eyelid turning inward so that the lashes abrade the cornea. It is the corneal ulceration secondary to the constant trauma that leads to scarring and blindness. Bacterial superinfection can also contribute to scarring. Blindness occurs years after the active disease.

Trachoma can be diagnosed clinically. The World Health Organization (WHO) suggests that at least 2 of 4 criteria must be present for a diagnosis of trachoma: lymphoid follicles on the upper tarsal conjunctivae, typical conjunctival scarring, vascular pannus, and limbal follicles. The diagnosis is confirmed by culture or staining tests for C. trachomatis performed during the active stage of disease. Serologic tests are not helpful clinically because of the long duration of the disease and the high seroprevalence in endemic populations.

Poverty and lack of sanitation are important factors in the spread of trachoma. As socioeconomic conditions improve, the incidence of the disease decreases substantially. Endemic trachoma has been controlled in most instances by administering topical tetracyclines (or, rarely, erythromycin ointment) daily for periods of 6-10 wk or intermittently over a 6-mo period. Oral doxycycline is effective but is contraindicated in children <8 yr of age. Oral erythromycin requires frequent dosing, which is impractical in the control of endemic trachoma. Several studies have reported that 1-6 doses of oral azithromycin are equivalent to 30 days of treatment with topical oxytetracycline/polymyxin ointment. The WHO recommends single-dose azithromycin (20 mg/kg, maximum 1g) for the treatment of trachoma in children. A study from Tanzania demonstrated that mass treatment with a single dose of azithromycin to all the residents of a village dramatically reduced the prevalence and intensity of infection. This effect continued for 2 years after treatment, probably by interrupting the transmission of ocular C. trachomatis infection.

218.2 Genital Tract Infections

Diagnosis

Definitive diagnosis of genital chlamydial infection is accomplished by isolation of the organism in tissue culture and confirmed by microscopic identification of the characteristic inclusions using fluorescent antibody staining in culture specimens obtained from the urethra in men and the endocervix in women. Care should be taken to obtain epithelial cells, not only discharge. C. trachomatis can be cultured in cycloheximide-treated HeLa, McCoy, and HEp-2 cells. Chlamydia culture has been further defined by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) as isolation of the organism in tissue culture and as confirmation of the characteristic intracytoplasmic inclusions by fluorescent antibody staining.

Alternatively, a nonculture method, specifically a nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT) can be used. These tests have high sensitivity, perhaps even detecting 10-20% greater than culture, while retaining high specificity. Three Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved NAATs are comercially available for detecting C. trachomatis: polymerase chain reaction (PCR; Amplicor Chlamydia test, Roche Molecular Diagnostics, Nutley, NJ), strand displacement amplification (SDA; ProbeTec, BD Diagnostic Systems, Sparks, MD), and transcription-mediated amplification (TMA; Amp CT, Gen-Probe, San Diego, CA). PCR and SDA are DNA amplification tests that use primers that target gene sequences on the cryptogenic C. trachomatis plasmid that are present at approximately 10 copies in each infected cell. TMA is a ribosomal RNA amplification assay. All 3 assays are also available as co-amplification tests for simultaneously detecting C. trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae.

The currently available commercial NAATs are FDA approved for cervical swabs from adolescent girls and women, urethral swabs from adolescent boys and men, and urine from adolescents and adults. The latest version of TMA was recently approved for use with vaginal swabs in adolescents and adults. Use of urine avoids the necessity for a clinical pelvic examination and can greatly facilitate screening in certain populations, especially adolescents, although several studies have now demonstrated that endocervical specimens and vaginal swabs are superior to urine for NAAT. Self-collected vaginal specimens appear to be as reliable as specimens obtained by a health care professional.

Data on use of NAATs for vaginal specimens or urine from children are very limited and insufficient to allow making a recommendation for their use. The CDC recommends that NAATs may be used as an alternative to culture only if confirmation is available. Confirmation tests should consist of a 2nd FDA-approved NAAT that targets a different gene sequence from the initial test.

The etiology of most cases of nonchlamydial nongonococcal urethritis is unknown, although Ureaplasma urealyticum and possibly Mycoplasma genitalium are implicated in up to one third of cases (Chapter 216). Proctocolitis may develop in individuals who have a rectal infection with an LGV strain (see Chapter 218.4, later).

Treatment

The 1st-line treatment regimens recommended by the CDC for uncomplicated C. trachomatis genital infection in men and nonpregnant women include azithromycin (1 g PO as a single dose) and doxycycline (100 mg PO twice a day for 7 days). Alternative regimens are erythromycin base (500 mg PO 4 times a day for 7 days), erythromycin ethylsuccinate (800 mg PO 4 times a day for 7 days), ofloxacin (300 mg PO twice a day for 7 days), and levofloxacin (500 mg PO once daily for 7 days). The high erythromycin dosages might not be well tolerated. Doxycycline and quinolones are contraindicated in pregnant women, and quinolones are contraindicated in persons younger than 18 yr. For pregnant women, the recommended treatment regimen is erythromycin base (500 mg PO twice a day for 7 days) or amoxicillin (500 mg PO 3 times a day for 7 days). Alternative regimens for pregnant women are erythromycin base (250 mg PO 4 times a day for 14 days), erythromycin ethylsuccinate (800 mg PO 4 times a day for 7 days or 400 mg PO 4 times a day for 14 days), and azithromycin (1 g PO in a single dose). Amoxicillin at a dosage of 500 mg PO 3 times a day for 7 days is as effective as any of the erythromycin regimens and is much better tolerated. However, experience with all these regimens is still limited.

Empirical treatment without microbiologic diagnosis is recommended only for patients at high risk for infection who are unlikely to return for follow-up evaluation, including adolescents with multiple sex partners. These patients should be treated empirically for both C. trachomatis and gonorrhea.

Sex partners of patients with nongonococcal urethritis should be treated if they have had sexual contact with the patient during the 60 days preceding the onset of symptoms. The most recent sexual partner should be treated even if the last sexual contact was more than 60 days from onset of symptoms.

218.3 Conjunctivitis and Pneumonia in Newborns

Epidemiology

Chlamydial genital infection is reported in 5-30% of pregnant women, with a risk for vertical transmission at parturition to newborn infants of about 50%. The infant may become infected at 1 or more sites, including the conjunctivae, nasopharynx, rectum, and vagina. Transmission is rare following cesarean section with intact membranes. The introduction of systematic prenatal screening for C. trachomatis infection and treatment of pregnant women has resulted in a dramatic decrease in the incidence of neonatal chlamydial infection in the USA. However, in countries where prenatal screening is not done, such as the Netherlands, C. trachomatis remains an important cause of neonatal infection, accounting for >60% of neonatal conjunctivitis.

218.4 Lymphogranuloma Venereum

LGV is a systemic sexually transmitted disease caused by the L1, L2, and L3 serotypes of the LGV biovar of C. trachomatis. Unlike strains of the trachoma biovar, LGV strains have a predilection for lymphoid tissue. About 20 cases of LGV have been reported in children, and <1,000 cases are reported in adults in the USA annually. There has been a resurgence of LGV infections among men who have sex with men in Europe and the USA. Many of the men were HIV infected and used illicit drugs, specifically methamphetamines.