Cardiac Embolism

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Chapter 4 Cardiac Embolism

Cardiac embolism represents one of the most common mechanisms of ischemic stroke. It is most common in the elderly as a consequence of the high incidence of atrial fibrillation, but it is also one of the most frequent causes of stroke in the young. Yet several factors often make the diagnosis of cardiac embolism complicated: (1) cardiac embolism can produce infarctions in any vascular distribution; (2) some of the potential sources of cardiac embolism are prevalent in the general population; (3) cardioembolic sources often coexist with atherosclerotic vascular lesions in the cerebral vasculature. Furthermore, even when the diagnosis of a cardioembolic stroke is typically followed by the initiation of anticoagulation for secondary prevention, this intervention has only been scientifically validated for atrial fibrillation and mechanical valve prosthesis. With these caveats in mind, Table 4-1 lists the potential causes of cardiac embolism divided according to the strength of the evidence supporting the pathophysiological association.

TABLE 4-1 Cardiac sources of embolism.

Definite
Atrial fibrillation (chronic and paroxysmal)*
Mechanical valve prosthesis
Rheumatic valve disease
Infective endocarditis
Nonbacterial thrombotic endocarditis
Dilated cardiomyopathy with severely reduced left ventricular ejection fraction
Acute transmural myocardial infarction (especially of the anterior wall)
Mural thrombi
Apical aneurysm
Left atrial thrombus
Atrial myxoma
Probable
Patent foramen ovale with atrial septal aneurysm
Biological prosthetic valves (early after surgery)
Possible
Patent foramen ovale
Spontaneous echo contrast
Left atrial enlargement
Degenerative mitral or aortic valve disease
Valve strands
Mitral annular calcification
Valvular fibroelastoma
Nondilatated cardiomyopathies
Sick sinus syndrome

* Includes atrial flutter.

Brain infarctions caused by cardiac embolism tend to share similar radiological characteristics regardless of the type of cardiac disease responsible for the embolism. These general characteristics are listed in Table 4-2 and illustrated in Figure 4-1. The pattern of acute multiple bilateral infarctions on diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI), especially when involving the anterior and posterior circulation territories, is strongly associated with cardiac embolism.1,2 Infarctions with embolic appearance and acute multiple brain infarctions on DWI24 should raise suspicion of a cardiac source but may also be produced by artery-to-artery embolism. In fact, it is essentially impossible solely on the basis of brain imaging to distinguish cardioembolic infarctions from infarctions due to aortic embolism. It is important to keep in mind that cardioembolic strokes can have atypical presentations, such as relatively small subcortical infarctions.5 Thus the presence of radiological features highly suggestive of cardiac embolism should prompt comprehensive cardiac assessment, but their absence does not exclude the possibility of a cardioembolic mechanism.

TABLE 4-2 Radiological characteristics of cardioembolic strokes.

Wedge-shaped infarctions based in the cortex
Concurrent acute bilateral infarctions
Concurrent acute infarctions in the anterior and posterior circulations
Multiple cortical infarctions in various vascular distributions (even if infarctions are of different ages)
Greater tendency to hemorrhagic transformation

The advent of echocardiography, particularly transesophageal echocardiography (TEE), has provided a wealth of information on various cardiac abnormalities that may increase the risk of ischemic stroke. Transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) provides better visualization of the left ventricle and mitral valve, but it typically adds little to TEE in the evaluation of stroke patients. TEE offers better visualization of the left atrium, left atrial appendage, interatrial septum, aortic valve, and aortic arch. The superiority of TEE for the study of the cardiac structures more commonly associated with embolism makes it the preferred choice for the evaluation of cardiac embolism in combination with electrocardiography (to detect myocardial ischemia and arrhythmias) and Holter monitoring (to recognized paroxysmal arrhythmias not apparent on the electrocardiogram [ECG]).6 TTE is justified when myocardial ischemia, areas of ventricular hypokinesis/akinesis, or dilatated cardiomyopathy are suspected by the history or the initial ECG. Although we strongly advocate the use of TEE for the study of cardiac sources of embolism after a transient ischemic attack (TIA) or stroke, in this chapter we present several examples of diagnostic TTE, because it was the institutional practice at Jackson Memorial Hospital’University of Miami to perform a transthoracic study first.

This chapter summarizes information on the most commonly encountered sources of cardiac embolism. It presents various illustrations of the radiological pattern of the brain infarctions and echocardiographic appearance of the cardiac disorders. It concludes with a reference to aortic, embolism, which that is included here because its diagnosis hinges on the use of TEE and the neuroimaging features of strokes caused by aortic embolism are essentially indistinguishable from those due to cardiac embolism.

ATRIAL FIBRILLATION

Case Vignette

A 72-year-old man with history of hypertension, dyslipidemia, and coronary artery disease presented with sudden left-sided weakness. Examination revealed an irregularly irregular pulse, left visual field deficit, left hemiparesis, and left hemihypoesthesia with neglect. ECG confirmed the suspicion of atrial fibrillation, and brain imaging showed a right middle cerebral artery infarction (Figure 4-2). TEE was remarkable for left atrial enlargement but did not show any atrial thrombus or dense spontaneous echo contrast. The patient was initially treated with aspirin because of concerns about possible hemorrhagic transformation of the cerebral infarction. Beta-blockers were successful in maintaining the ventricular rate controlled. Warfarin was started 3 days after the stroke without complications. The patient evolved favorably and remained free of stroke recurrence 3 years later.

Anticoagulation is clearly indicated for primary and secondary stroke prevention in patients with atrial fibrillation.15 Aspirin should only be used in patients with low risk of thromboembolic complications (i.e., young age, no cardiovascular risk factors, absence of echocardiographic markers of increased embolic risk).15 When anticoagulation is contraindicated by concurrent conditions, aspirin is prescribed and radiofrequency ablation procedures to restore sinus rhythm permanently are an option. Percutaneous occlusion of the left atrial appendage is being investigated as another alternative for these cases.16

DILATED CARDIOMYOPATHY

Anticoagulation is generally accepted as the optimal strategy for secondary prevention after a stroke attributed to dilated cardiomyopathy.17 For primary stroke prevention, anticoagulation is only indicated in patients with documented atrial fibrillation or left ventricular thrombus17 but might be useful in patients without these complicating conditions as well.18

MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION

Anticoagulation for at least 3 to 6 months is recommended for patients with stroke due to acute myocardial infarction with documented left ventricular mural thrombus.20 In patients with transmural myocardial infarction but without documented mural thrombus, short-term anticoagulation may be justified if the stroke was attributed to concurrent myocardial ischemia.

INFECTIVE ENDOCARDITIS

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