54: Trauma

Published on 06/02/2015 by admin

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CHAPTER 54 Trauma

James Duke, MD, MBA

1 Review conditions that predispose trauma patients to increased anesthetic risk

A depressed level of consciousness may lead to hypoventilation, loss of protective airway reflexes, inappropriate behavior, and decreased ability to examine and interview the patient. Full stomachs increase the risk of pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents. Because of blood loss, hypothermia, alcohol and drug intoxication, and organ injury, these patients are prone to altered responsiveness to anesthetic agents.

2 Outline the initial management of an unconscious, hypotensive patient

The ABCs (airway, breathing, and circulation) are essential. Unconscious patients require rapid and definitive airway control. The trachea should be intubated in a rapid-sequence fashion. Establish numerous large-gauge sites of intravenous access, using either short 14- or 16-G catheters peripherally or 9 Fr introducers into the central circulation. Quickly bolus the patient with at least 2 L of balanced crystalloid solution. Failure to respond indicates a need for blood. If crossmatched blood is unavailable, transfuse O-negative or type-specific red blood cells. If more than 2 units of O-negative red bloods cells is given, continue administering O-negative blood. Establish an arterial catheter for continuous monitoring and blood analysis (arterial blood gases, hematocrit, platelet count, coagulation profiles, and blood chemistries).

3 What is the significance of Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score of 8?

The GCS is an assessment for patients with head injury. The final score is the sum of scores for best eye opening, best motor and best verbal responses; scores range from 3 to 15. Generally, the GCS for severe head injury is 9 or less; for moderate injury, 9–12; and for minor injury, 12 and higher. A patient with a GCS of 8 is sufficiently depressed that endotracheal intubation is indicated (see Table 54-1).

TABLE 54-1 Glasgow Coma Scale*

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4 Describe the changes in vital signs associated with progressive blood loss

See Table 54-2.

TABLE 54-2 Changes in Vital Signs with Progressive Blood Loss

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5 What is the initial therapy for hypovolemic shock?

Initially replace estimated blood losses with balanced crystalloid solutions. The volume administered is three or four times the estimated blood loss. Continued hemodynamic instability suggests that blood transfusion is necessary, although other causes of hypotension such as head injury, hemothorax, tension pneumothorax, or pericardial tamponade should be considered. Patients who have lost more than 25% or 30% of their blood volume may likely require transfusion with packed red blood cells.

6 Why is rapid-sequence induction preferred for airway management in trauma patients?

Rapid-sequence induction is used because trauma patients are at risk for pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents and it minimizes the time between loss of consciousness and airway protection with a cuffed endotracheal tube (ETT). The usual rapid-sequence induction begins with preoxygenation with 100% oxygen. A cardiostable induction agent (ketamine or etomidate) in reduced doses is chosen in the unstable patient. The moribund patient may require only paralysis. A rapid-acting relaxant, usually succinylcholine (SCh), is chosen. Before induction, pressure is applied firmly over the cricoid ring (Sellick maneuver) to prevent regurgitation of gastric contents. The patient is intubated as soon as adequate muscle relaxation is achieved (usually around 45 to 60 seconds). The presence of end-tidal CO2 is confirmed, and breath sounds are assessed before release of cricoid pressure.

7 How does an uncleared cervical spine modify the approach to the airway?

Patients requiring emergent surgical procedures do not have time to have their cervical spines evaluated fully. There is no airway management technique that results in no cervical motion. However, there is no documentation of iatrogenic neurologic injury in patients with cervical fractures when cervical spine precautions are used. These precautions include an appropriately sized Philadelphia collar, sand bags placed on each side of the head and neck, and the patient resting on a hard board with the forehead taped and secured to it.

Alternative airway management techniques in the traumatized patient include rapid-sequence induction with in-line stabilization, use of the Bullard laryngoscope, blind nasal intubation, and fiber-optic bronchoscopic-assisted ventilation. A Glidescope is a laryngscope with a camera lens on its tip and is very useful when a patient’s neck must be maintained in a neutral position. An unstable or uncooperative patient likely would receive a rapid-sequence induction.

When a cervical fracture or cervical spinal cord injury (SCI) is documented, most anesthesiologists choose fiber-optic intubation facilitated by some form of topical anesthesia to the airway and sedation, titrated to effect, keeping in mind the patient’s other injuries and hemodynamic status. This allows postintubation assessment of neurologic status before induction of unconsciousness. It would not be advisable to ablate all protective airway reflexes in a patient with a full stomach.

8 Which induction agents are best for trauma patients?

Far more important than the particular drug is the dose given because most induction agents produce hypotension through loss of sympathetic tone. Ketamine may be the best agent in the hypovolemic patient because its sympathetic stimulation supports the blood pressure; it should be recognized that on occasion its direct myocardial depressant effects may result in hypotension. It is contraindicated in patients with increased intracranial pressure because it increases cerebral blood flow. Etomidate may be used in some trauma patients because of its minimal effect on hemodynamic variables; however, it will decrease sympathetic tone in patients probably relying on enhanced autonomic tone to maintain cardiac output; thus reductions in usual doses are appropriate. It also depresses adrenal function, although the impact of one dose is unclear.

9 Why are trauma patients hypothermic?

Hypothermia results from the same events as in any surgical patient, including loss of hypothalamic regulation, peripheral vasodilation, and exposure within a cold environment. However, trauma patients are often hypothermic on arrival to the hospital because of environmental exposure, are often not well covered during their diagnostic period, and may be receiving unwarmed intravenous fluids and blood. Hypothermia also contributes to coagulopathy. The following strategies are recommended:

image Warm the room before arrival.
image Warm all fluids and blood products.
image Use convective air-warming blankets and cover all nonprepped exposed skin surfaces.
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