20: Patient Positioning

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CHAPTER 20 Patient Positioning

James Duke, MD, MBA

1 What is the goal of positioning a patient for surgery?

The goal of surgical positioning is to facilitate the surgeon’s technical approach while balancing the risk to the patient. The anesthetized patient cannot make the clinician aware of compromised positions; therefore the positioning of a patient for surgery is critical for a safe outcome. Proper positioning requires that the patient be securely placed on the operating table; all potential pressure areas padded; the eyes protected; no muscles, tendons, or neurovascular bundles stretched; intravenous lines and catheters free flowing and accessible; the endotracheal tube in the proper position; ventilation and circulation uninterrupted; and general patient comfort and safety maintained for the duration of the surgery. It is always advisable to question a patient or ascertain if there is impaired mobility at any joint; never attempt to position patients beyond their limitations.

Throughout the surgical procedure it is also important to reassess the positioning, readjust as needed, and document any positioning actions and reassessments.

2 Review the most common positions used in the operating room

See Figure 20-1.

image image

Figure 20-1 Patient positioning.

(From Martin JT: Positioning in anesthesia and surgery, ed 2, Philadelphia, 1987, WB Saunders.)

3 What physiologic effects are related to change in body position?

An important consideration is the gravitational effects on the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. A change from an erect to a supine position increases cardiac output secondary to improved venous return to the heart, but there is minimal change in blood pressure secondary to reflex decreases in heart rate and contractility. Conditions that increase intra-abdominal pressure in the supine position, including abdominal tumors, ascites, obesity, pregnancy, or carbon dioxide insufflation for laparoscopy, decrease venous return and cardiac output.

The supine position results in decreased functional residual capacity and total lung capacity secondary to the abdominal contents impinging on the diaphragm. Anesthesia and muscular relaxation further diminish these lung volumes. Trendelenburg and lithotomy positions result in further compression of the lung bases, with a subsequent decrease in pulmonary compliance. Although some improvement is achieved with positive-pressure ventilation, the diaphragm is not restored to the awake position. In the supine position spontaneous ventilation to the dependent lung areas increases. Matching of ventilation to perfusion improves because blood flow also increases to dependent areas.

4 Describe the lithotomy position and its common complications

The patient’s hips and knees are flexed, and the patient’s feet are placed in stirrups to gain ready access to the genitalia and perineum. The range of flexion may be modest (low lithotomy) or extreme (high lithotomy). The feet may be suspended on vertical structures known as candy canes or in boots, or the knees may be supported with crutches. With elevation of the legs, pressure is taken off the lower back, and blood is translocated from the lower extremities to the central compartments.

Compression to lower extremity peripheral nerves is the most common injury, occurring in about 1% to 2% of patients placed in the lithotomy position. Neuropathies may be unilateral or bilateral and are a function of the time in this position (especially longer than 2 hours). They are noted soon after surgery, may present with paresthesias and/or motor weakness, and usually resolve completely, although this may require a few months. Before these injuries are attributed to lithotomy positioning, consider if use of neuraxial needles, lower extremity tourniquets, or surgical trauma (e.g., use of retractors) may have contributed.

To prevent dislocation of the hips, at case conclusion both feet should be released from the lithotomy stirrups and lowered simultaneously. When the leg section of the operating table is elevated, ensure that the fingers are clear to avoid crush or amputation injuries.

5 What nerves may be affected from lithotomy positioning?

image Femoral nerve: A reasonable practice is to avoid hip flexion >90 degrees, although it remains a matter of debate whether extreme flexion predisposed the patient to a femoral neuropathy. The femoral nerve is also at risk from pelvic retractors.
image Common peroneal nerve: May be injured when the head of the fibula is insufficiently padded and compressed against the stirrup canes.
image Sciatic nerve: Avoid stretching the hamstring muscle group by avoiding hip flexion >90 degrees.
image Saphenous nerve: May become injured if the medial tibial condyle is compressed.
image Obturator nerve: May be stretched as it exits the obturator foramen during thigh flexion.
image Lateral femoral cutaneous nerve: Would always present with only sensory findings.

6 What are the special concerns for a patient positioned in the lateral decubitus position?

All patients in the lateral position should have an axillary roll positioned to distribute weight to the patient’s rib cage and prevent compression of the neurovascular bundle of the dependent arm. Loss of pulse to the dependent arm suggests excessive compression, but the presence of a pulse does not ensure that the brachial plexus is protected. The arms are usually supported and padded in a position perpendicular to the shoulders. The dependent leg is usually flexed at the hip and knee, with padding between the legs and under the inferior fibular head to reduce pressure on the peroneal nerve. The head position should be in line with the vertebral column to prevent stretching of the brachial plexus of the nondependent arm. Horner’s syndrome has been reported when the head was not supported in a neutral position. Facial structures, breasts, and genitalia should also be protected.

Ventilation-perfusion mismatching is a risk in the lateral position. The dependent lung is underventilated and relatively overperfused. In contrast, the nondependent lung is overventilated because of the increase in compliance. Usually there is some physiologic compensation, and changes in ventilation and perfusion are usually well tolerated, although in a compromised patient they may prove problematic.

7 What are the physiologic effects and risks associated with the Trendelenburg position?

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